Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University
Department of Psychology
Completed by: Rybalchenko.Yu.
General and special abilities.
( abstract on general psychology .)
Checked:
BISHKEK
PLAN:
1. The concept of abilities.
2. Classification of abilities
Natural and natural sp.
Specific human sp.
General and special sp.
Theoretical and practical sp.
Educational and creative sp.
Socially conditioned sp.
3.General and special abilities.
4. Gifted children and features of their social adaptation.
5.Basic provisions on the topic "ability".
6. Conclusion.
1. The concept of abilities.
Abilities - a set of congenital anatomical, physiological and acquired regulatory properties that determine the mental capabilities of a person in various activities.
Each activity imposes a set of requirements on the physical, psycho-physiological and mental capabilities of a person. Ability is a measure of the correspondence of personality properties to the requirements of a particular activity.
In the structure of the personality, it is not individual abilities that are essential, but their complexes that most fully meet the requirements of broad areas of activity.
A high ability for a particular type of activity is a talent, and a set of abilities that ensure success in a particular field of activity is a giftedness. The highest level of abilities, embodied in epoch-making accomplishments, is genius (from the Latin "genius" - spirit).
Mental features of giftedness and especially genius are manifested in a highly developed intellect, non-standard thinking, in its combinatorial qualities, powerful intuition. Figuratively speaking, talent is hitting a target that no one can hit; genius - hitting a target that no one else sees.
A prerequisite for brilliant accomplishments is creative obsession, a passion for searching for a fundamentally new, highest manifestation of harmony. Gifted people are distinguished by early intensive mental development, the development of giftedness and genius is facilitated by favorable social conditions that do not constrain non-standard personality traits. Society must be the spirit of certain social expectations in order for a corresponding genius to emerge.
Abilities are not limited to the knowledge, skills and abilities that an individual has. They are manifested in the speed and strength of mastering the methods of a certain activity, they act as regulatory features of the individual's mental activity.
The makings of abilities are features nervous system, which determine the work of various analyzers, individual cortical zones and cerebral hemispheres. Congenital inclinations determine the rate of formation of temporary nerve connections, their stability, the ratio of the first and second signal systems.
The natural prerequisites for abilities are multi-valued - on their basis, various abilities can be formed, they are amenable to restructuring (recombination). This provides compensatory possibilities for mental regulation: the weakness of some neurophysiological components is compensated for by the strength of other components. ("1")
In modern psychology and throughout the history of its development, you can find different definitions of the concept of "Abilities":
1. Abilities are the properties of the human soul, understood as a set of all kinds of psychological processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest definition
abilities.
2. Abilities represent a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure the successful performance of various types of activities by a person. This definition was widespread in the psychology of the XVIII-XIX centuries.
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("1") .
3. Abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (provides) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition is now accepted and the most common. At the same time, it is the narrowest of all three (author B.M. Teplov) (“2”)
The third definition proposed by BM Teplov seems to me to be the most complete. It can be refined using references to the works of BM Teplov. In the concept of "ability", in his opinion, there are three ideas. “Firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another ... Secondly, not all individual characteristics are called abilities, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities ... Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that a given person has already developed" ("3")
Capabilities cannot exist otherwise than in a constant process of development. An ability that does not develop, which a person ceases to use in practice, is lost over time. Only thanks to the constant exercises associated with systematic studies of such complex species human activities, such as music, technical and artistic creativity, mathematics, sports, etc., we maintain and further develop the corresponding abilities.
The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities, and this combination, which gives the same result, can be provided in various ways. In the absence of the necessary inclinations for the development of some abilities, their deficiency can be made up for by a stronger development of others.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ABILITIES
There are quite a few classifications of human abilities. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are common in man and in animals, especially higher ones, for example, in monkeys. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking, the ability for elementary communications at the level of expression. These abilities are directly related to innate inclinations, but are not identical to them, but are formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections.
A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general and special higher intellectual abilities based on the use of speech and logic, theoretical and practical, educational and creative, subject and interpersonal.
General abilities include those that determine the success of a person in a wide variety of activities. These include, for example, mental abilities,
subtlety and precision of hand movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others. Special abilities determine the success of a person in specific activities, for the implementation of which the inclinations of a special kind and their
("2") R.S. Nemov. Psychology.-M., 1990.
("3") Teplov B.M. Problems of individual differences.-M., 1961.
development. Such abilities include musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, artistic and creative, sports and a number of others. The presence of general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special ones and vice versa. Often, general and special abilities coexist, mutually complementing and enriching each other. (for more details on general special abilities, see point 3)
Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Such abilities, in contrast to general and special ones, on the contrary, are more often not combined with each other, meeting together only in gifted, multi-talented people.
Educational and Creative skills differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training and education, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and the formation of personality qualities by a person, while the latter determine the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and inventions, in a word, individual creativity in various fields of human activity.
The ability to communicate, interact with people, as well as subject-activity, or subject-cognitive, abilities are socially conditioned to the greatest extent. As examples of abilities of the first type, one can cite human speech as a means of communication (speech in its communicative function), abilities interpersonal perception and evaluation of people, the ability of socio-psychological adaptation to different situations, the ability to get in touch with various people, win them over, influence them, etc.
So far, in psychology, primary attention has been paid specifically to subject-activity abilities, although interpersonal abilities are no less important for the psychological development of a person, his socialization and the acquisition of the necessary forms by him. public behavior. Without the ability to speak as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, a normal life and mental development of a person would be simply impossible. The absence of such abilities in a person would be an insurmountable obstacle just on the way of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.
Both interpersonal and subject abilities complement each other. Thanks to their combination, a person gets the opportunity to develop fully and harmoniously.
The success of any activity is determined not by individual abilities, but only by their successful combination, exactly the one that is necessary for this activity. There is practically no such activity, success in which would be determined by only one ability. On the other hand, the relative weakness of any one ability does not exclude the possibility of successful performance of the activity with which it is associated, since the missing ability can be compensated by others that are part of the complex that provides this activity. For example, poor vision is partially compensated by the special development of hearing and skin sensitivity.
3.General and special abilities
The number of human abilities corresponds to the variety of activities in which people are involved. In addition to the division of abilities according to the types of activity in which they are manifested, abilities are usually divided into general and special.
One of the tasks of psychological theory is to determine the essence of abilities, the laws of their development and appearance, as well as the ways of their formation. There is a special area differential psychology, investigating the individual psychological differences of people. The problem of abilities can be considered as a special, individualizing mental phenomenon.
Special abilities are a peculiar form of manifestation of general generic human qualities in given specific social conditions. ================================================= ===================
("4") R.S. Nemov. Psychology.-M., 1990.
In the psychological literature, a number of works are devoted to special abilities. The works of B.M. Teplov about musical abilities, K.K. Platonov - about flight abilities, V.I. Kireenko about visual abilities, L.I. Umansky about organizational skills, V.A. Krutetsky about mathematical abilities. Let's consider some of them. B.M. Teplov came to the conclusion that musicality is necessary for the implementation of this type of activity, by which he understands a complex of specific abilities inherent only in musical activity. The main abilities that make up musicality, according to B.M. Teplov are: 1) musical ear in its two components - pitch and modal; 2) musical and reproductive ability (ability to auditory representation); 3) musical-rhythmic feeling.
L.I. Umansky, studying the ability to organize, came to the conclusion that it is possible to distinguish 18 typical qualities, personality traits that are inherent in capable organizers: 1) the ability to "charge" other people with their energy, activate them; 2) practical-psychological mind; 3) the ability to understand the psychology of people and correctly respond to it; 4) criticality; 5) psychological tact; 6) general level development; 7) initiative; 8) exactingness to other people; 9) propensity for organizational activity; 10) practicality; 11) independence; 12) observation; 13) self-control, endurance; 14) sociability; 15) persistence; 16) personal activity; 17) performance; 18) organization. The author believes that the unity of these qualities is necessary for the implementation of organizational activities.
The study of the structures of abilities for specific types of socially useful activity goes along the line of intersection of more particular abilities, the totality of which, according to the authors, constitutes the ability for a particular type of activity. ("4")
4. Gifted children and features of their social adaptation.
gifted children- children who show general or special talent (for music, drawing, technology, etc.). Giftedness is diagnosed by the rate of mental development. Before others, one can detect the artistic talent of children; in the field of science, giftedness in mathematics is most quickly manifested. There are frequent cases of discrepancies between the general mental development of the child and the severity of more special abilities. The formation of individual psychological characteristics depends on innate inclinations, environment and the nature of the activity.
Features of mental development are clearly manifested in giftedness, success.
So, one child immediately memorizes a long poem, another easily adds up five-digit numbers in his mind, the third expresses thoughts worthy of a philosopher. Parents and teachers quite often observe manifestations of early and bright abilities, a fast pace of learning, inexhaustibility in doing what they love.
Children's and school giftedness has repeatedly become the subject of discussions between scientists and teachers. At one of these discussions, A.V. Petrovsky noted that children have always been gifted, but against the backdrop of scientific and technological achievements, intellectual, artistic and physical development, the brilliance of "geeks" seemed to have faded, but bright manifestations of children's giftedness still exist. A.V. Petrovsky emphasized that, as a rule, such children easily endure the accelerated, rapid development of their abilities, and this is explained by the fact that they spend less energy on solving the problems facing them. And we must not forget about the positive emotions from success, which perfectly compensates for energy costs. And what else expressed the concern of A.V. Petrovsky - supporting the manifestations of bright abilities, one should not lose sight of the formation of personality.
N. Leites, who studied gifted intellectuals more, noting that the origins of this phenomenon should be sought in the possibilities of childhood. Every normal child necessarily has periods when he makes seemingly extraordinary progress. So, N. Leites notes that all babies are very sensitive to foreign languages. Childhood is also characterized by an amazing power of imagination. Unfortunately, as they grow older, most gifted children allow themselves to catch up in development. But it happens that such an unusual life start, as it were, continues in great successes and achievements. N Leites emphasized that we must strive for each child to show himself as brightly as possible in early childhood. N. Leites noticed one important circumstance in the development of giftedness, highlighting, as it were, the boundary between non-giftedness and giftedness - the need to realize oneself. He drew attention to the fact that the motivating force of such a need distinguishes the truly gifted and talented, and that it is important to encourage it.
L. Wenger, participating in the discussion, connected a lot in the development of giftedness with the possibilities of shaping the personality of each child, and saw genetic predestination only in the pace of assimilation of skills and knowledge.
The study of giftedness has a long history and yet the terminology is not yet fully established and has several different meanings. Pointing to the giftedness of a person, they talk about hereditary prerequisites, a high level of mental development, and many other features.
Let's use the term "giftedness" in its most commonly used meaning, meaning a high level of development of abilities, any - general and special. In some children and adults, the level of ability differs significantly from the average. They are called very capable and gifted. ("5")
5. Basic provisions on the topic "ability":
Abilities are properties and qualities (individual characteristics) of a person that make him suitable for the successful implementation of any types of socially useful activity (S.L. Rubinshtein).
Teplov B.M.: 3 main signs of ability:
1. individual psychological characteristics;
2. determining the success of the performance of activities;
3. not reducible to ZUN (knowledge, skills), but also determining the speed of learning new ways and methods of activity.
Manichev S.A.
.:
1. Propensity to any activity, motivation;
2. The pace of learning by any ZUN;
3. The presence of the limits of ability;
4. Non-standard results;
5. Measure of public recognition;
6. Noise immunity;
7. Level of generalization, transfer.
Ability formation mechanism: generalization ( mental processes relations that are manifested in activities) + consolidation.
Empirical signs of ability:
1. The level of productive activity;
2. The speed of learning;
("5") Leites N.S. Mental abilities and age. - M., 1971
3. Individual nature of the performance of actions (originality);
4. early manifestation high results (not always);
5. Noise immunity, tendency to activity.
Rubinshtein S.L..: abilities develop in the process of human interaction with things and objects, products historical development. The development of ability occurs in a spiral: the realization of an opportunity that provides an ability of one level opens up new opportunities for further development, higher level abilities. A person's abilities are the internal conditions for his development, which are formed in the process of human interaction with the outside world.
Types of abilities: general - associated with the conditions of the leading forms of human activity (creativity, for example); special - associated with the conditions of a particular activity.
Conditions for the development of abilities:
1. It is necessary to take into account the sensitive periods of development of various functions;
2. The presence of a favorable social environment (environment that has knowledge, etc.);
3. At each moment of time, the activity should be in the zone of optimal difficulty:
- simple activity - decrease in interests;
- very difficult activity - decrease in pace, motivation.
Makings - congenital anatomical and physiological features of the nervous system, the brain, which form the natural basis for the development of abilities (Teplov B.M.).
Abilities are not reduced to inclinations, inclinations are one of the premises for the formation of abilities
Rubinstein: inclinations are prerequisites for the development of abilities, but do not determine them. The quality of abilities is determined by the level of generalization of the corresponding mental processes.
The inclinations characterize the speed of generalization (the speed with which a person generalizes).
A person's giftedness is determined by the range of opportunities that the realization of available opportunities opens up. It is determined by the quality (to what) and the scale. There is a general talent - the ability to learn - and special - a high level of special abilities (especially high - talent and genius).
Talent is the ability to achieve a higher order.
Genius is the ability to create something fundamentally new:
- originality in various areas + dominant side;
- awareness of the ability;
- inclusion of ability in character.
Giftedness indicators:
- the pace and ease of assimilation of the material;
- breadth of transfer;
- time of manifestation;
- correlation of results with conditions.
Factors affecting the development of abilities:
- initial premise - innate inclinations;
- detection time;
- development of abilities for activities in which there is interest;
- comprehensive development of interests and abilities;
- rivalry and cooperation.
6.Conclusion
From the considered material, it can be concluded that abilities are individual psychological characteristics that are formed in activity on the basis of inclinations, distinguishing one person from another, on which the success of an activity depends. Each ability that makes a person fit to perform a certain activity always includes some operations or modes of action by means of which this activity is carried out. In the development of abilities in the process of activity, the relationship between abilities and skills plays a significant role. Abilities and skills are not identical, but are interrelated.
LITERATURE:
1. Leites N.S. Mental abilities and age. - M., 1971.
2. M.I. Enikeev, O.L. Kochetkov. General, social and legal psychology.–M., 1997
3. General psychology, ed. V.V. Bogoslavsky, A.G. Kovaleva, A.A. Stepanova.-M., 1981
4. Psychology. Dictionary. Under the general editorship. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky.-M., 1990
5. Rubinshtein S.L. General psychology. SPb., 200.
6. Teplov B.M. Problems of individual differences.-M., 1961.
7. Web site: www.azps.ru
8. R.S. Nemov. Psychology.-M., 1990.
The difference in the achievement of success by people who find themselves in the same conditions is explained by the degree of development of human abilities. Where one person reaches the highest level of skill, the other, with all his diligence, only a certain average level. There are some activities, for example, art, science, sports, in which only a person with certain abilities can achieve success.
The term "ability", despite its long and widespread use, has different interpretations. Ability is understood to mean:
a set of various mental processes and states;
a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure the successful performance of various types of activities by a person;
makings, anatomical and physiological foundations for the rapid and effective acquisition of skills that contribute to the successful implementation of various activities.
A significant contribution to the development of the general theory of abilities was made by the domestic psychologist B. M. Teplov. The main provisions of his theory:
1. Abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. For example: for a musician, this is not long fingers hands, and above all an ear for music, a sense of rhythm.
2. Abilities are not called any individual characteristics, but only those that ensure the successful implementation of activities.
3. Abilities are not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that a given person has already developed.
Abilities are understood as those mental properties and qualities of a person that serve as a necessary condition for the successful performance of an activity.
Often abilities are not noticed and not appreciated. For example, Surikov V.I., who was capable, but did not possess graphic skills due to lack of training, at the exam, the inspector of the Academy of Arts said: “For such drawings, you should even be forbidden to walk past the Academy.” N. V. Gogol, according to teachers elementary school, was not capable of learning the Russian language. The great physicist I. Newton was considered an unsuccessful student until he became interested in mathematics and physics.
Ability can exist only in the process of human activity and development. If he stops using it, it fades away. Abilities are a lifetime education that has an innate basis. In the absence of the inclinations of certain abilities, their deficiency can be made up for by the intensive development of others.
Many of the natural abilities are common to man and animals. Cognitive processes can act as such: perception, memory, thinking. These abilities are directly related to innate inclinations. They are formed in the presence of elementary life experience through the mechanisms of learning. For example, animal training for circus performers.
So, when we talk about abilities, we mean the ability to do something specific - to mathematics, literature, music, etc. Any ability is the ability to do some kind of activity. At the same time, there are such abilities that are manifested only in connection with a certain type of activity. Therefore, human abilities can be divided into special and general (Scheme 30).
Special abilities are abilities that appear only in certain types activities (artistic, musical, mathematical, etc.).
General abilities are those that are manifested in all types of human activity (mental abilities, developed manual motor skills, memory, etc.).
General abilities - these are favorable opportunities for the development of such features of the human psyche, which are equally important for many types of activity. These include: the general level of intellectual development, attentiveness, memory, strong-willed qualities, competent speech, working capacity, etc.
Special or professional abilities- these are opportunities for the development of individual mental qualities for specific type activities: musical, mathematical, linguistic, sports, etc. They require persistent and long training for their development.
Each ability, which creates for a person only the prerequisites for a certain activity, requires for its high development the organization of a whole system of methods, techniques and operations. For some professions - artistic, sports - training, in order to be successful, should begin at 6-7 years old.
One of the most difficult problems is the question of the origin of abilities. role in their emergence and development of biological and social factors. Opinions are expressed that talent is 1% ability and 99% sweat.
However, the question of the origin of abilities is still open. It is recognized that, on the one hand, there are natural prerequisites for abilities, but their manifestation and development largely depend on the individual conditions for the formation of a personality.
Although a number of studies have been carried out to identify a genetic predisposition to a particular type of activity, the question of the genotypic conditionality of inclinations remains quite controversial. The formation of abilities, leading to individual psychological differences, is associated with the interaction of hereditary factors and the environment. Individual differences are generated by numerous and complex interactions between an individual's heredity and his environment. Heredity allows very wide limits of behavior. Within these boundaries, the result of the development process depends on the external environment in which development takes place.
In humanistic psychology, the development of his abilities, his self-actualization is considered as the main goal of the personality. But it is impossible to develop all abilities equally. A fully harmoniously developed person is from the realm of utopian dreams. A person needs to determine his leading abilities and realize them in professional activity setting challenging but achievable goals.
The domestic theory of abilities was created by the works of many outstanding psychologists - Vygotsky, Leontiev, Rubinstein, Teplov, Ananiev, Krutetsky, Golubeva.
Teplov, defining the content of the concept ability, formulated 3 her sign, which underlie many works:
- abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;
- they are related to the success of an Activity or many Activities;
- abilities are not limited to available skills, abilities and knowledge, but can explain the ease and speed of acquiring this knowledge.
Ability- This psychological feature of a person and is not an innate quality, but is a product of development and formation in the process of any Activity. But they are based on congenital anatomical and physiological features - inclinations. Although abilities develop on the basis of inclinations, they are still not their function, inclinations are prerequisites for the development of abilities. Inclinations are considered as non-specific features of the nervous system and the organism as a whole, therefore, the existence of its own pre-prepared inclination for each ability is denied. On the basis of different inclinations, different abilities develop, which are equally manifested in the results of Activity.
Based on the same deposits different people different abilities can be developed. Domestic psychologists talk about the inseparable connection of abilities with activity. Abilities always develop in Activity and represent an active process on the part of a person. Types of Activity in which abilities are formed are always concrete and historical.
One of the main principles of domestic psychology is a personal approach to understanding abilities. The main thesis: it is impossible to narrow the content of the concept of "ability" to the characteristics of individual mental processes.
I. The problem of abilities arises when considering a Personality as a subject of Activity. A great contribution to the understanding of the unity of the abilities and qualities of the Personality was made by Ananiev, who considered the ability as an integration of the properties of the subjective level (properties of a person as a subject of Activity). In his theory the structure of human properties has 3 levels:
- Individual(natural). These are sexual, constitutional and neurodynamic features, their highest manifestations are inclinations.
- subjective properties characterize a person as a subject of labor, communication and knowledge and include features of attention, memory, perception, and so on. The integration of these properties are abilities.
- Personal properties characterize a person as a social being and are associated primarily with social roles, social status and value structure. The highest level in the hierarchy of personality traits is represented by the character and inclinations of a person.
A unique combination of all the properties of a person forms an individuality in which the central role is played by personal properties that transform and organize individual and subjective properties.
II. Most often, the relationship between the orientation of the Personality and its abilities is considered. Interests, inclinations, needs of a person induce him to active activity, in which abilities are formed and developed. Successful performance of the Activity associated with developed abilities has a positive effect on the formation of positive motivation for the Activity.
III. The influence of the characterological traits of the Personality on the formation of abilities is great. Purposefulness, diligence, perseverance are necessary in order to achieve success in solving the tasks set, and hence the development of abilities. The lack of strong-willed character traits can interfere with the development and manifestation of the intended abilities. Researchers note the characterological traits inherent in gifted people - initiative, creativity, high self-esteem.
Foreign psychologists also express similar ideas about abilities. They associate them with achievements in various activities, consider them as the basis of achievements, but do not associate abilities and achievements as identical characteristics.
Capabilities- this is a concept that serves to describe, streamline the possibilities that determine the achievements of a person. Abilities are preceded by skills that are their condition for acquisition in the learning process, frequent exercises and training. Achievements in Activity depend not only on abilities, but also on motivation, mental state.
General abilities- intellectual and creative abilities that find their manifestation in many different types of Activities.
Special abilities– are defined in relation to individual special areas of Activity.
Most often, the ratio of general and special abilities is analyzed as the ratio of the general and the special in the conditions and results of the Activity.
Teplov associated general abilities with general moments in different types of activity, and special ones with special specific moments.
GENERAL ABILITIES
An attempt to systematize and analyze abilities was made by V. N. Druzhinin (2). General abilities he defines as the ability to receive, transform and apply knowledge. And the following components play the most important role in this:
1. Intelligence (ability to solve problems based on the application of existing knowledge),
2. creativity (the ability to transform knowledge with the participation of imagination and fantasy),
3. learning ability (ability to acquire knowledge).
Intelligence many researchers consider it as an equivalent of the concept of general giftedness, as the ability to learn and work in general, regardless of their content. The most complete, from a substantive point of view, is the definition of Wexler's intellect, he understands intellect as the ability for expedient behavior, rational thinking and effective interaction with the outside world.
The second factor in general ability is creativity, creative abilities, understood as a person's ability to non-standard, non-standard problem solving. Consider the relationship between creativity and intelligence. A lot of works have been devoted to establishing the relationship between creativity and intelligence, but they give very contradictory data, apparently, these relationships are characterized by great individual originality and at least 4 different combinations can occur. The originality of the combination of intelligence and creativity is manifested in the success of activities, behavior, personal characteristics, methods (forms) of social adaptation.
Creativity is not always amenable to development; moreover, it has been noticed that in the process of schooling, associated with routine and solving standard algorithmic tasks, the number of highly creative schoolchildren decreases. The development of creativity is facilitated by attention to the child, a wide range of requirements, including inconsistent ones, little external control of behavior, encouragement of non-stereotypical behavior and the presence of creative family members. Sensitive periods for the development of general creativity were noted at the age of 3-5 years, specialized at 13-20 years.
Learnability - this is the general ability to assimilate knowledge and methods of activity (in the broad sense); indicators of the rate and quality of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities (in the narrow sense). The main criterion of learning in a broad sense is the "economical" thinking, that is, the brevity of the path in self-identification and formulation of patterns in the new material. The criteria for learning in the narrow sense are: the amount of dosed assistance that the student needs; the ability to transfer acquired knowledge or methods of action to perform a similar task. Implicit learning ability is distinguished as "unconscious" primary general ability and explicit "conscious" learning ability.
Considering the ratio of intelligence, creativity and learning, Druzhinin V. N. distinguishes 2 levels in them.
Level 1 is determined by hereditary factors, the level and features of the development of functions - this is a functional level determined by the natural organization of the individual.
Level 2 - operational - socially determined, is determined by the degree of formation of operations that are assimilated by an individual in the process of upbringing, education and relate to the characteristics of a person as a subject of activity (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Two-level structure of abilities.
Thus, in the structure of abilities, naturally conditioned functional and socially conditioned operational mechanisms are closely intertwined. Some authors include stylistic characteristics in the structure of abilities, which primarily include cognitive styles. Cognitive styles are stable individual characteristics that manifest themselves in the way a person perceives and processes information.
IN last years along with general intelligence, emotional intelligence is distinguished, which includes 5 types of abilities: knowledge of emotions, management of emotions, recognition of emotions in others, the ability to motivate oneself, coping with social relations. If general intelligence is a factor in academic and professional success, then the level of emotional intelligence allows us to talk about the likelihood of success in life (2).
SPECIAL ABILITIES
Special abilities determine the success of a person in specific activities, for the implementation of which the inclinations of a special kind and their development are necessary (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative, sports, etc.). These abilities, as a rule, can complement and enrich each other, but each of them has its own structure.
Special abilities should also include abilities for practical activities, namely: constructive-technical, organizational, pedagogical and other abilities.
Special abilities are organically related to general or mental abilities. The higher the general abilities are developed, the more internal conditions are created for the development of special abilities. In turn, the development of special abilities, under certain conditions, has a positive effect on the development of intelligence.
There are many known personalities with very high level a wide variety of abilities: scientific, literary, mathematical and artistic. Practical abilities cannot be developed and updated in creative activity without a high level of intellectual development. Thus, the constructive and technical abilities of a person are often associated with great scientific talent: a gifted inventor often introduces innovation not only in production, but also in science. A gifted scientist may also show outstanding design abilities (Zhukovsky, Tsiolkovsky, Edison, Faraday and many others).
Thus, each activity imposes certain requirements on general and special abilities. That is why it is impossible to narrowly professionally develop a personality, its abilities. Only the comprehensive development of the personality will help to identify and form general and special abilities in their unity. This does not mean that a person should not specialize in the area for which he shows inclination and greatest ability. Therefore, although this classification has a real basis, when analyzing a particular type of ability, it is necessary to take into account the general and special components in each individual case (7).
Ability and personality.
Development of abilities in younger students.
What are abilities
One of the most complex and interesting problems in psychology is the problem of individual differences. It is difficult to name at least one property, quality, trait of a person that would not be included in the circle of this problem. Mental properties and qualities of people are formed in life, in the process of education, upbringing, activity. With the same educational programs and teaching methods, we see individual characteristics in everyone. And that's great. That's why people are so interesting because they are different.
The central moment in the individual characteristics of a person is his abilities, it is the abilities that determine the formation of the personality and determine the degree of brightness of its individuality.
Capabilities- these are the internal conditions for the development of a person, which are formed in the process of his interaction with the outside world.
“Human abilities that distinguish a person from other living beings constitute his nature, but the very nature of a person is a product of history,” wrote S.L. Rubinstein. Human nature is formed and changed in the process of historical development as a result of human labor activity. Intellectual abilities were formed as, by changing nature, a person cognized it, artistic, musical, etc. were formed along with the development of various types of art” 1 .
The concept of "ability" includes three main features:
Firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. These are features of sensations and perception, memory, thinking, imagination, emotions and will, relationships and motor reactions, etc.
Secondly, abilities are not called individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of performing an activity or many activities. There is a huge variety of activities and relationships, each of which requires certain abilities for its implementation at a sufficiently high level. Properties such as irascibility, lethargy, indifference, which are undoubtedly the individual characteristics of people, are usually not called abilities, because they are not considered as conditions for the success of any activity.
Third, abilities are understood as such individual characteristics that are not limited to the available skills, abilities or knowledge of a person, but which can explain the ease and speed of acquiring this knowledge and skills 2 .
Based on the above, the following definition can be derived.
Abilities are such individual psychological characteristics of a person that meet the requirements of this activity and are a condition for its successful implementation.
In other words, abilities are understood as the properties, or qualities, of a person that make him suitable for the successful performance of a certain activity. You can't just be "capable" or "capable of everything", regardless of any particular occupation. Every ability is necessarily the ability to something, to any activity. Abilities both manifest themselves and develop only in action.
1 Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: In 2 vols. - M., 1989. - T. 2. -S. 127.
2 See: Warm B.M. Selected works: In 2 volumes - M., 1985. - V.1. - C.16.ness, and determine the greater or lesser success in the implementation of this activity.
Indicators of abilities in the process of their development can be the pace, ease of assimilation and speed of advancement in a particular area of human activity.
A person is not born with the ability for this or that activity. Only inclinations that form the natural basis for the development of abilities can be innate.
Inclinations are structural features of the brain and nervous system, sense organs and movements, functional features of the body, given to everyone from birth.
The inclinations include some innate features of the visual and auditory analyzers, typological properties of the nervous system, on which the speed of formation of temporary nerve connections, their strength, the strength of concentrated attention, the endurance of the nervous system, and mental performance depend. The level of development and correlation of the first and second signal systems should also be considered as inclinations. I.P. Pavlov distinguished three specifically human types of higher nervous activity: artistic type with the relative predominance of the first signal system, thinking type with the relative predominance of the second signal system, third type - with relative balance of signaling systems. For people of the artistic type, the brightness of direct impressions, the imagery of perception and memory, the richness and liveliness of the imagination, and emotionality are characteristic. Thinking type people tend to analyze and systematize, to generalized, abstract thinking.
Individual features of the structure of individual sections of the cerebral cortex can also be inclinations. But inclinations are only prerequisites for the development of abilities, they are one, albeit very important, of the conditions for the development and formation of abilities. If a person, even with the best inclinations, does not engage in relevant activities, his abilities will not develop. A favorable environment, upbringing and training contribute to the early awakening of inclinations. For example, from the age of two, Rimsky-Korsakov could clearly distinguish all the melodies that his mother sang, at the age of four he already sang everything that his father played, soon he himself began to pick up the pieces he heard from his father on the piano. Igor Grabar tells about himself: “When a passion for drawing began, I don’t remember, but suffice it to say that I don’t remember myself not drawing.
Ability cannot arise without a corresponding specific activity. It is impossible to understand the matter in such a way that the ability exists before the corresponding activity has begun, and is only used in the latter. Absolute pitch as an ability does not exist in a child before he first faced the task of recognizing the pitch of a sound. Prior to this, there was only a deposit as an anatomical and physiological fact. And a subtle ear for music can be unrealized if a person does not specifically study music. Therefore, music lessons with young children, even if the kids do not show bright musical talents, have great importance to develop their musical abilities.
Abilities are not only manifested in activity, but are also created in this activity. They are always the result of development. By its very essence, ability is a dynamic concept - it exists only in motion, only in development.
The development of abilities takes place in a spiral: the realization of the possibilities that the ability of one level represents opens up new opportunities for further development, for the development of abilities of a higher level (S.L. Rubinshtein).
Thus, the child's abilities are formed gradually by mastering him in the process of learning the content of material and spiritual culture, technology, science, and art. The initial prerequisite for this development of abilities is innate inclinations (we note that the concepts of "innate" and "hereditary" are not identical).
It should not be thought that each ability corresponds to a special deposit. The makings are multivalued and can be realized in various types abilities, on their basis different abilities can be developed depending on how a person’s life will go, what he learns, what he is inclined to. Inclinations can, to a greater or lesser extent, determine the originality of a person's development, the style of his intellectual or other activity.
It is impossible to indicate in advance the exact boundaries in the development of certain abilities, to determine the "ceiling", the limit of their development. This is due to the fact that any activity requires for its implementation not one, but several abilities, and they can, to a certain extent, compensate, replace each other. Learning and mastering what has been created by mankind in the entire history of its existence, we develop our own natural qualities, our inclinations, we turn them into abilities for activity. Every person is capable of something. Abilities develop in a person as he masters some activity, field of knowledge, academic subject.
A person's abilities develop and work out on what he does. One can cite as an example P.I. Tchaikovsky. He did not have an absolute pitch, the composer himself complained of a poor musical memory, he played the piano fluently, but not so well, although he had been playing music since childhood. Composer activity P.I. Tchaikovsky first took up, having already graduated from the School of Law. And despite this, he became a brilliant composer.
There are two levels of ability development: reproductive And creative. A person who is at the first level of development of abilities reveals a high ability to master a skill, acquire knowledge, master an activity and carry it out according to the proposed model, in accordance with the proposed idea. At the second level of development of abilities, a person creates a new, original.
In the process of mastering knowledge and skills, in the process of activity, a person "transfers" from one level to another. Accordingly, the structure of his abilities also changes. As you know, even very gifted people began with imitation, and then, only as they gained experience, they showed creativity.
“Scientists have established that it is not individual abilities as such that directly determine the possibility of successfully performing any activity, but only that peculiar combination of these abilities that characterizes a given person.
One of the most important features of the human psyche is the possibility of an extremely wide compensation of some properties by others, as a result of which the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing even such an activity that is most closely related to this ability. The missing ability can be compensated within very wide limits by others highly developed in the given person. B.M. Teplov emphasized the importance of the advancement and development by a number of foreign psychologists, and primarily by V. Stern, of the concept of compensation for abilities and properties.
Separate abilities do not just coexist with each other. Each ability changes, acquires a qualitatively different character, depending on the presence and degree of development of other abilities. L.S. Vygotsky wrote: “Each of our “ability” actually works in such a complex whole that, taken by itself, it does not even give an approximate idea of the real possibilities of its action. A person with a weak memory when we study it in isolation may turn out to be better at remembering than a person with a good memory, simply by virtue of the fact that memory never appears on its own, but always in close cooperation with attention, general attitude, thinking - and the combined effect of these various abilities may turn out to be completely independent of the absolute value of each of the terms" 1 .
A peculiar combination of abilities that provides a person with the opportunity to successfully perform any activity is called giftedness.
The problem of giftedness is primarily a qualitative problem (S.L. Rubinshtein). The first, main question is what are the abilities of a person, what are his abilities for and what is their qualitative originality. But this qualitative problem also has its quantitative aspect.
A high level of development of abilities is called talent.
Talented people are able to solve complex theoretical and practical problems in some field of knowledge or practice, they are able to create material or spiritual values that are new and of progressive significance. In this sense, we are talking about talented scientists, writers, teachers, artists, designers, managers, etc.
Talent can manifest itself in any human activity, and not just in the field of science or art. The attending physician, and the teacher, and the skilled worker, and the head, and the farmer, and pilot, etc.
1 Vygotsky L. S. Pedagogical psychology. - M., 1991. - S. 231. Talented people are also called those who are able to quickly acquire knowledge and correctly apply them in life and in their activities. These are talented pupils and talented students, talented violinists and pianists, talented engineers and builders.
Genius- this is the highest degree of manifestation of the creative forces of man. This is the creation of qualitatively new creations that open new era in the development of culture, science, practice. So, A.S. Pushkin created works, with the appearance of which a new era begins in the development of Russian literature and the Russian literary language.
We can say this: a genius discovers and creates something new, and talent understands this new thing, quickly assimilates it, applies it to life and moves it forward.
Brilliant and talented people are people with a very developed mind, observation, imagination. M. Gorky remarked: "Great people are those who have better, deeper, sharper developed abilities of observation, comparison and conjecture - guesswork and" estimates "".
Creative activity requires the so-called broad outlook, familiarity with many areas of knowledge and culture. Anyone who is "up to his ears" immersed in a narrow scientific field deprives himself of a source of analogies.
Many outstanding people showed high abilities in various fields of knowledge. Many of them were versatile in their abilities. For example, Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci, M.V. Lomonosov. Here is what Sofia Kovalevskaya wrote about herself: “I understand that you are so surprised that I can study literature and mathematics at the same time. Many who have never had a chance to learn more about mathematics confuse it with arithmetic and consider it a dry and barren science. In essence, however, this is a science that requires the most imagination, and one of the first mathematicians of our century says quite rightly that one cannot be a mathematician without being at the same time a poet at heart. Only, of course, in order to understand the correctness of this definition, one must abandon the old prejudice that a poet must compose something that does not exist, that fantasy and fiction are one and the same. It seems to me that a poet must see what others do not see, to see deeper than others. And so should a mathematician.” 3.2. General and special capabilities
Distinguish abilities are common, that appear everywhere or in many areas of knowledge and activity, and special, that appear in one area.
A fairly high level of development general abilities - features of thinking, attention, memory, perception, speech, mental activity, curiosity, creative imagination, etc. - allows you to achieve significant results in various areas of human activity with intensive, interested work. There are almost no people in whom all the above abilities are evenly expressed. For example, Ch. Darwin noted: "I surpass average people in the ability to notice things that easily escape attention, and subject them to careful observation."
Special abilities - these are the abilities for a certain activity that help a person achieve high results in it. The main difference between people is not so much in the degree of giftedness and quantitative characteristics of abilities, but in their quality - what exactly is he capable of, what are these abilities. The quality of abilities determines the originality and originality of the giftedness of each person.
Both general and special abilities are inextricably linked with each other. Only the unity of general and special abilities reflects the true nature of a person's abilities. V.G. Belinsky subtly remarked: “No matter how you split life, it is always one and whole. They say: for science, mind and reason are needed, for creativity - fantasy, and they think that this has decided the matter completely ... But art does not need mind and reason? Can a scientist do without fantasy?
Special abilities have developed in the course of the development of human society and human culture. “All the special abilities of a person are, after all, various manifestations, aspects of his general ability to master the achievements of human culture and its further advancement,” noted S.L. Rubinstein. - A person's abilities are manifestations, aspects of his ability to learn and work.
1 Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - M., 1946. - P.643. The development of the special abilities of each person is nothing more than an expression of the individual path of his development.
Special abilities are classified in accordance with various areas of human activity: literary abilities, mathematical, constructive and technical, musical, artistic, linguistic, stage, pedagogical, sports, abilities for theoretical and practical activities, spiritual abilities, etc. All of them are a product of the prevailing in the history of mankind, the division of labor, the emergence of new areas of culture and the allocation of new activities as independent activities. All kinds of special abilities are the result of the development of the material and spiritual culture of mankind and the development of man himself as a thinking and active being.
The abilities of each person are quite wide and varied. As already noted, they both manifest themselves and develop in activity. Any human activity is a complex phenomenon. Its success cannot be ensured by only one ability, each special ability includes a number of components, which in their combination, unity form the structure of this ability. Success in any activity is ensured by a special combination of various components that make up the structure of abilities. Influencing each other, these components give the ability individuality, originality. That is why each person is capable, talented in his own way in the activity in which other people work. For example, one musician may be talented in playing the violin, another in the piano, and a third in conducting, showing his individual creative style in these special areas of music as well.
The development of special abilities is a complex and lengthy process. Different special abilities are characterized by different time of their revealing. Earlier than others, talents in the field of arts, and above all in music, are manifested. It has been established that at the age of up to 5 years, the development of musical abilities occurs most favorably, since it is at this time that a child’s ear for music and musical memory are formed. Examples of early musical talent are V.A. Mozart, who discovered extraordinary abilities already at the age of 3, F.J. Haydn - at 4 years old, Ya.L.F. Mendelssohn - at 5 years old, S.S. Prokofiev - at the age of 8. Somewhat later, abilities for painting and sculpture are manifested: S. Raphael - at 8 years old, B. Michelangelo - at 13 years old, A. Dürer - at 15 years old.
Technical abilities are revealed, as a rule, later than abilities in the field of arts. This is explained by the fact that technical activity, technical invention require a very high development of higher mental functions, primarily thinking, which is formed at a later age - adolescence. However, the famous Pascal made a technical invention at the age of 9, but this is one of the rare exceptions. At the same time, elementary technical abilities can be manifested in children as early as 9-11 years old.
In the field of scientific creativity, abilities are revealed much later than in other areas of activity, as a rule, after 20 years. At the same time, mathematical abilities are detected earlier than others.
It must be remembered that any creative abilities in themselves do not turn into creative accomplishments. In order to get a result, you need knowledge and experience, work and patience, will and desire, you need a powerful motivational basis for creativity.
3.3. Abilities and personality
Capabilities cannot be understood and cannot be considered outside the personality. The development of abilities and the development of personality are interdependent processes. This is what psychologists pay attention to, emphasizing that “the development of ability gives not only a practical effect, increasing the quality of activity, but also a personal effect of satisfaction from its process, which, acting as a reinforcement, turns out to be, in turn, a condition of ability” (K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya).
Success or failure in an activity that is significant for a person affects the development of his personality, forms his personal dignity. Without the development of abilities, there can be no development of personality. Abilities underlie the individuality, uniqueness of a person. Genius and talent are expressed not only in the strong development of the intellect. A sign of high abilities and giftedness is sustained attention, emotional ! passion, strong will. All brilliant people were distinguished by ardent love and passion for their work. So, A.V. Suvorov was all devoted to military affairs, A.S. Pushkin - poetry, I.P. Pavlov - science, K.E. Tsiolkovsky - to the study of interplanetary space flights.
A passionate attitude to work contributes to the concentration of all cognitive, creative, emotional and volitional forces.
It is wrong to think that everything is easy for capable people, without much difficulty. As a rule, the people whom we call talented have the ability for one activity or another always combined with industriousness. Many talented scientists, writers, artists, teachers and other figures emphasized that talent is work multiplied by patience. The great scientist A. Einstein once said in a joking manner that he achieved success only because he was distinguished by "stubbornness of a mule and terrible curiosity." M. Gorky said about himself: "I know that I owe my success not so much to natural talent as to the ability to work, love of work."
In the development of a person's abilities, his own work on oneself. The life of famous people shows that the most important thing in their creative activity is the ability to work continuously, the ability to achieve the intended goal for months, years, decades, and tirelessly look for ways to achieve it.
Let us recall the life and work of the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov. His brilliant abilities developed not only in the process of active military activity, but also as a result of his own hard work on himself. Suvorov from childhood was fond of military affairs, read out descriptions of the campaigns of the great commanders of antiquity: Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Julius Caesar. By nature, he was a weak and sickly child. But from his youth, he himself managed to create what nature did not give him - health, endurance, iron will. He achieved all this by constant training and hardening of his body. Suvorov himself invented various gymnastic exercises for himself and constantly practiced them: he doused himself with cold water all year round, swam and swam until frost, overcame the steepest ravines, climbed tall trees and, having climbed to the very top, swayed on the branches. At night, on a bare horse, he rode without roads through fields and forests. Permanent physical exercise Suvorov was so tempered that even as a 70-year-old man he did not know fatigue.
The development of human abilities is closely related to the development of interests.
Interest is an individual feature of a person, its focus on what a person considers in the world and in his life to be the most significant, most valuable.
Distinguish direct And mediated interest. The first is related to the amusement, fascination, pleasantness of what aroused our interest. For example, we are talking about an interesting performance, a meeting with an interesting person, an interesting lecture, etc. This interest manifests itself mainly in involuntary attention and is very short-lived.
The second is mediated by our conscious desire to learn more and more about an object, person, phenomenon. This interest is arbitrary, i.e. we express our will, our desire to penetrate deeper into the essence of what interests us. The mediation of interest is expressed in a more or less long-term, stable orientation of the individual to a certain subject, to a certain area of reality and life, to a certain activity. It is the presence of such an interest that constitutes an individual feature of a person.
People's interests differ primarily in content, which is determined by those objects or areas of reality to which these interests are directed.
People's interests differ by latitude. Narrow interests are considered to be directed only to one limited area of reality, wide and versatile - aimed at several areas of reality. At the same time, in a person with diverse interests, usually some interest is central, main.
The same interests in different people are manifested with different by force. Strong interest is often associated with strong feelings and manifests itself as passion. It connects with such personal qualities as perseverance, endurance, stamina, patience.
The interests of this or that force differ from person to person according to sustainability or by degree of persistence.
Interest as an individual feature of a person covers the entire human psyche. It is the interests to a large extent that determine many of the traits of his character and determine the development of his abilities.
Interest is manifested in a person's tendency to engage in activities primarily related to the subject of interest, in the constant experience of pleasant feelings caused by this subject, as well as in the tendency to constantly talk about this subject and about matters related to it.
inclination It is expressed in the fact that a person, at his own request, intensively and constantly engages in a certain type of activity, prefers it to others, and associates his life plans with this activity. Most of the researchers who dealt with this problem define propensity as a focus on the corresponding activity or need for activity (N.S. Leites, A.G. Kovalev, V.N. Myasishchev, A.V. Petrovsky, K.K. Platonov, S. L. Rubinshtein, B. M. Teplov, K. D. Ushinsky, G. N. Shchukina, etc.).
The development of abilities is primarily associated with an active positive attitude towards the relevant activity, interest in it, a tendency to engage in it, often turning into passionate enthusiasm. Interests and inclinations for a certain activity usually develop in unity with the development of abilities for it.
The upbringing of creative abilities in children, schoolchildren, students is largely associated with the development of their personality: independence, enthusiasm, independence in judgments and assessments. High academic performance is not always combined with a high level of creative abilities. The scientists were able to identify the relationship between academic achievements, the level of students' abilities and the level of teacher's creative abilities.
If the teacher has a high creative potential, then gifted students achieve brilliant success, and students with less developed creative abilities are “in the pen”, their academic results are usually not great. If the teacher himself is somewhere at the bottom of the “creativity” scale, the success of students who are deprived of creative brilliance is higher than in the first case. And brightly gifted schoolchildren do not open up, do not realize their potential. The mentor, as it were, gives preference to the psychological type to which he himself belongs.
Educators are trying to capture their experience in developing the creative potential of students in different kind rules. As an example, let's take the "10 commandments" compiled by one teacher high school:
1. Disagree with the student's answer if the answer is simply confirmed and taken for granted. Require proof.
2. Never resolve a student dispute in the easiest way, ie. simply by telling them the right answer or the right way to solve it.
3. Listen carefully to your students, catch every thought they express, so as not to miss the opportunity to reveal something new to them.
4. Always remember - teaching should be based on the interests, motives and aspirations of students.
5. The class schedule and school bells should not be the determining factor in the educational process.
6. Respect your own "crazy ideas" and instill in others a taste for out-of-the-box thinking.
7. Never tell your student: "We don't have time to discuss your stupid idea."
8. Do not skimp on an encouraging word, a friendly smile, friendly encouragement.
9. In the learning process, there cannot be a permanent methodology and a once-for-all established program.
10. Repeat these commandments every night until they become part of you.
