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Natural emergencies

Natural disasters are usually unexpected. In a short time they destroy territories, dwellings, communications, and bring hunger and disease in their wake.

AT last years Emergencies of natural origin tend to increase. In all cases of earthquakes, floods, landslides, their destructive power increases.

Natural emergencies are divided into: geological, meteorological, hydrological, natural fires, biological and space.

Natural emergencies are subject to some general patterns:

• each type of emergency is facilitated by a certain spatial confinement;
• the more intense the dangerous natural phenomenon, the less often it happens;
• each emergency of natural origin has predecessors - specific signs;
• the appearance of a natural emergency, for all its unexpectedness, can be predicted;
• it is often possible to envisage both passive and active protection measures against natural hazards.

The role of anthropogenic influence on the manifestation of natural emergencies is great. Human activity disturbs the balance in the natural environment. Now that the use of natural resources, the features of the global ecological crisis began to appear very tangibly. An important preventive factor that makes it possible to reduce the number of natural emergencies is the observance of natural balance.

All natural disasters are interconnected, these are earthquakes and tsunamis, tropical cyclones and floods, volcanic eruptions and fires, poisoning of pastures, death of livestock.

Taking protective measures against natural disasters, it is necessary to minimize the secondary consequences, and with the help of appropriate training, if possible, eliminate them completely.

The study of the causes and mechanisms of natural emergencies is a prerequisite for successful protection against them, the possibility of their prediction. An accurate and timely forecast is an important condition for effective protection against hazardous phenomena.

Protection from natural phenomena can be active (construction of engineering structures, reconstruction of natural objects, etc.) and passive (use of shelters),

To natural disasters associated with geological natural phenomena include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, snow avalanches, landslides, precipitation of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes are underground shocks and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from tectonic processes, transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. Earthquakes can cause volcanic activity, the fall of small celestial bodies, collapses, dam breaks, and other causes.

The causes of earthquakes are not fully understood. Stresses arising under the action of deep tectonic forces deform the layers of earth rocks. They shrink into folds, and when overloads reach critical levels, they tear and mix. A break in the earth's crust is formed, which is accompanied by a series of shocks and the number of shocks, and the intervals between them are very different. Shocks include foreshocks, mainshock and aftershocks. The main push has the greatest force. People perceive it as very long, although it usually lasts a few seconds.

As a result of research, psychiatrists and psychologists have obtained data that often aftershocks have a much more severe mental impact on people than the main shock. There is a feeling of inevitability of trouble, a person is inactive, while he should defend himself.

The focus of an earthquake is a certain volume in the thickness of the Earth, within which energy is released. The center of the focus is a conditional point - the hypocenter or focus. The epicenter of an earthquake is the projection of the hypocenter onto the Earth's surface. The greatest destruction occurs around the epicenter, in the pleistoseist region.

The energy of earthquakes is estimated by magnitude (lat. value). The magnitude of an earthquake is a conditional value that characterizes the total amount of energy released in the earthquake source. The strength of the earthquake is estimated according to the international seismic scale MSK - 64 (Merkalli scale). It has 12 conditional gradations - points.

Earthquakes are predicted by registering and analyzing their "predecessors" - foreshocks (preliminary weak shocks), deformation of the earth's surface, changes in the parameters of geophysical fields, changes in the behavior of animals. Until now, unfortunately, there are no methods for reliable earthquake prediction. The time frame for the beginning of an earthquake can be 1-2 years, and the accuracy of predicting the location of an earthquake varies from tens to hundreds of kilometers. All this reduces the effectiveness of earthquake protection measures.

In seismically hazardous areas, the design and construction of buildings and structures is carried out taking into account the possibility of earthquakes. Earthquakes of 7 points and above are considered dangerous for structures, so construction in areas with a 9-point seismicity is uneconomical.

Rocky soils are considered the most reliable in seismic terms. The stability of structures during earthquakes depends on the quality of building materials and work. There are requirements to limit the size of buildings, as well as requirements to take into account the relevant rules and regulations (SP and N), which boil down to strengthening the structure of structures built in seismic zones.

Antiseismic measures are divided into two groups:

1. preventive, preventive measures are the study of the nature of earthquakes, the determination of their predecessors, the development of methods for predicting earthquakes;
2. activities that are carried out immediately before the start of an earthquake, during it and after it ends. The effectiveness of actions in earthquake conditions depends on the level of organization of rescue operations, the level of training of the population and the effectiveness of the warning system.

A very dangerous immediate consequence of an earthquake is panic, during which people, out of fear, cannot meaningfully take measures for salvation and mutual assistance. Panic is especially dangerous in crowded places - at enterprises, in educational institutions and in public places.

Death and injury occur when debris from destroyed buildings falls, as well as as a result of people being in the rubble and not receiving timely assistance. Earthquakes can cause fires, explosions, emissions of hazardous substances, traffic accidents and other dangerous phenomena.

Volcanic activity is the result of active processes that constantly occur in the bowels of the Earth. Volcanism is a set of phenomena that are associated with the movement of magma in the earth's crust and on its surface. Magma (Greek thick ointment) is a molten mass of silicate composition, which is formed in the depths of the Earth. When magma reaches the earth's surface, it erupts as lava. Lava does not contain gases that escape during an eruption. This is what distinguishes it from magma.

Volcanoes are divided into active, dormant and extinct volcanoes. Three main types of eruptions are known: effusive (Hawaiian), mixed (Strombolian) and extrusive (dome).

Volcanic activity and earthquakes are interconnected: seismic shocks mark the beginning of an eruption. Volcanic activity initiates landslides, collapses, avalanches, tsunamis (on the seas and oceans).

Landslides are the displacement of soil masses along the slope under the influence of gravity. Rocks sliding down form the slopes of hills, mountains, river and sea terraces. Landslides are caused by natural and artificial causes. Natural causes: undermining of slope bases by water, increase in steepness of slopes, seismic tremors, etc.

Artificial causes: improper agricultural practices, deforestation, too much soil removal, etc. Modern landslides are 80% related to the anthropogenic factor.

In the mechanism of the landslide process, landslides, shears, extrusion, and hydrodynamic removal are distinguished. Landslides are distinguished by the depth of surface slip: surface (up to 1m), shallow (up to 5m), deep (up to 20m), very deep (more than 20m). According to the speed of displacement, landslides are divided into slow, medium and fast. It is the latter of them that are the cause of disasters with many victims. The scale of landslides is determined by the area involved in the process. In terms of thickness, landslides are determined by the volume of shifting rocks - from several hundred cubic meters to 1 million m3.

Mudflows are violent floods on mountain rivers, mud-stone flows caused by heavy rains, washings of reservoir dams, intensive snowmelt, earthquakes. Anthropogenic factors also contribute to the occurrence of mudflows. The high speed of mud streams (15 km/h) is the main danger. Mudflows are divided into strong, medium and weak flows according to their power. Mudflows are characterized by linear dimensions, volume, density, structure, speed of movement, duration, repeatability.

To prevent mudflows, mudflow-retaining and mudflow-directing hydraulic structures are built, the vegetation layer is fixed on mountain slopes, and other anti-mudflow measures are carried out.

A variety of landslides are snow avalanches, a mixture of snow and air crystals. These huge masses of snow sliding down the mountain slopes claim about 100 human lives every year in Europe. Avalanches can be caused by earthquakes. Avalanches according to the nature of movement are divided into slope, flume and jumping. The large kinetic energy contained in an avalanche has tremendous destructive power. On mountain treeless slopes at 30-400C, the most optimal conditions for the formation of avalanches are created. The speed of avalanches can reach from 20 to 100 m/sec. Predicting the exact time of avalanches is impossible.

Preventive measures are divided into passive and active

Passive methods include the construction of dams, avalanche cutters, snow guards, and planting forests.

Active methods include artificially provoking an avalanche in a certain place and at the right time. This is the shelling of avalanches with projectiles and directional explosions, as well as the use of strong sound sources.

Meteorological emergencies are caused by the following reasons:

• wind, storm, hurricane, tornado;
• heavy rain;
• large hail;
• heavy snowfall;
• blizzards with speeds above 15m/s;
• frosts;
• frost and heat.

Wind is the movement of air relative to the earth. Air moves from an area of ​​high pressure to an area of ​​low pressure.

Uneven heating leads to atmospheric circulation, which affects the weather and climate of the planet. The direction of the wind is divided by the azimuth of the side of the horizon from which it blows, measured in m / s, km / h, in knots or points on the Beaufort scale. It was accepted in 1963. World Meteorological Organization.

The cyclic activity of the atmosphere is the main cause of hurricanes, storms and tornadoes. The atmosphere is divided into troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere, depending on the temperature distribution.

An area of ​​low pressure in the atmosphere with a minimum in the center is called a cyclone. In diameter, it can reach several thousand kilometers, and the speed of its movement is from 30 to 200 km / h. Cyclones are divided according to their origin into tropical and extratropical. The cyclone has the following structure:

• its central part, where the lowest pressure, weak winds and cloudiness, is called the “eye of the storm (hurricane)”;
• the outer part of the cyclone, where the maximum pressure, hurricane speeds of air flows - the "wall of the cyclone", giving way to the peripheral part, in which the pressure of the atmosphere sharply decreases and the winds weaken.

In the Northern Hemisphere in a cyclone, air masses move counterclockwise, in the Southern Hemisphere - clockwise. During a cyclone, cloudy weather with strong winds prevails.

Hurricane (typhoon) It is a wind of great destructive power and long duration. Its speed is 32 m / s or more (on the Beaufort scale - 12 points). Hurricanes are subdivided depending on the place of occurrence of cyclones into extratropical and tropical. Tropical hurricanes move mainly in a meridional direction, while extratropical hurricanes move from west to east.

Hurricanes occur at any time of the year, but in Russia they pass mainly in August and September. A certain cyclicity of their origin contributes to their more accurate forecasting. Forecasters give names to hurricanes, mostly female, or use a four-digit numbering.

Hurricanes are accompanied by showers, snowfalls, hail, electrical discharges. They can cause dust and snow storms.

Storm (storm)- This is a very strong and continuous wind at a speed of 20 m / s. Storms bring much less destruction and damage than hurricanes.

There are storms vortex and flow.

Vortex storms are caused by cyclonic activity and spread over large areas.

Among the vortex storms, dust, snow and squalls are distinguished.

Dust (sand) storms occur in deserts, in plowed steppes and are accompanied by the transfer of huge masses of soil and sand.

Snowstorms move large masses of snow through the air. They operate on a strip from several kilometers to several tens of kilometers. Snow storms of great strength occur in the steppe part of Siberia and on the plains of the European part of the Russian Federation. In Russia in winter, snow storms are called snowstorms, blizzards, snowstorms.

Flurries- short-term wind amplification up to a speed of 20-30 m/s. They are characterized by a sudden beginning and the same sudden end, a short duration of action and great destructive power.

Squall storms operate in the European part of Russia both on land and at sea.

stream storms- local phenomena with a small distribution. They are divided into stock and jet. During katabatic storms, air masses move down the slope from top to bottom.

Jet storms are characterized by horizontal or upslope air movement. Most often they occur between chains of mountains that connect valleys.

A tornado (tornado) is an atmospheric vortex that occurs in a thundercloud. Then it spreads in the form of a dark "sleeve" towards land or sea. The upper part of the tornado has a funnel-shaped extension that merges with the clouds. When a tornado descends to the Earth's surface, its lower part sometimes expands, resembling an overturned funnel. The height of the tornado is from 800 to 1500m. Rotating counterclockwise at a speed of up to 100 m/s and rising in a spiral, the air in the tornado draws dust or water. The decrease in pressure inside the tornado leads to the condensation of water vapor. Water and dust make the tornado visible. Its diameter above the sea is measured in tens of meters, and above land - hundreds of meters.

According to the structure, tornadoes are divided into dense (sharply limited) and vague (indistinctly limited); in time and spatial effect - on small tornadoes of mild action (up to 1 km), small (up to 10 km) and hurricane whirlwinds (more than 10 km).

Hurricanes, storms, tornadoes are extremely powerful elemental forces, in their destructive effect they are comparable only to an earthquake. It is very difficult to predict the place and time of the appearance of a tornado, which makes them especially dangerous and does not allow predicting their consequences.

Hydrological disasters are caused by the following reasons:

• too much high level water - floods, in which part of the settlements and crops are flooded, damage to transport and industrial facilities;
• too low water level, which disrupts the navigation and water supply of cities;
• sat down;
• snow avalanches;
• early freezing, the appearance of ice on navigable waterways.

This group of emergencies includes marine hydrological phenomena - tsunamis, storms, ice pressure, their intense drift.

High water, high water and flood

high water- annually recurring seasonal rise in water level.

high water- a short-term and non-periodic increase in the water level in a river or reservoir.

Floods following one after another can cause floods, and the last floods.

Flood is one of the most common natural hazards. They arise from a sharp increase in the amount of water in the rivers as a result of the melting of snow or glaciers, due to heavy rains. Floods are often accompanied by blockage of the river bed during ice drift (jam) or blockage of the river bed by an ice plug under a fixed ice cover (jamming).

On sea coasts, floods can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. Floods caused by the action of winds that drive water from the sea and raise the water level due to its retention at the mouth of the river are called surge floods.

Experts believe that people are in danger of flooding if the water layer reaches 1m and its flow speed is more than 1m/s. If the rise of water reaches 3 m, this leads to the destruction of houses.

Flooding can occur even when there is no wind. It can be caused by long waves arising in the sea under the influence of a cyclone. In St. Petersburg, the islands in the Neva delta have been flooded since 1703. more than 260 times.

Floods on rivers differ in the height of the water rise, the area of ​​flooding and the magnitude of damage: low (small), high (medium), outstanding (large), catastrophic. Low floods can be repeated in 10-15 years, high ones in 20-25 years, outstanding ones in 50-100 years, catastrophic ones in 100-200 years.

They can last from several to 100 days.

The flood in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, which happened 5600 years ago, had very serious consequences. In the Bible, the flood was called the Flood.

Tsunamis are marine gravity waves of great length, resulting from shifts of large sections of the bottom during underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other tectonic processes. In the area of ​​their occurrence, waves reach a height of 1-5 m, near the coast - up to 10 m, and in bays and river valleys - more than 50 m. Tsunamis propagate inland to a distance of up to 3 km. The coast of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is the main area of ​​tsunami manifestation. They produce very large destruction and pose a threat to people.

Breakwaters, embankments, harbors and jetties protect against tsunamis only partially. On the high seas, tsunamis are not dangerous for ships.

Protection of the population from tsunamis - warnings of special services about the approach of waves, based on advanced registration of earthquakes by coastal seismographs.

Forest, steppe, peat, underground fires are called landscape or natural fires. Forest fires are the most common, causing huge losses and leading to human casualties.

Forest fires are uncontrolled burning of vegetation, which spontaneously spreads through the forest area. In dry weather, the forest dries up so much that any careless handling of fire can cause a fire. In most cases, the culprit of the fire is a person. Forest fires are classified according to the nature of the fire, the speed of propagation and the size of the area covered by the fire.

Depending on the nature of the fire and the composition of the forest, fires are divided into grassroots, riding and soil fires. At the beginning of their development, all fires are ground fires, and when certain conditions arise, they turn into crown or soil fires. Mounted fires are subdivided according to the parameters of the edge advancement (burning band bordering the outer contour of the fire) into weak, medium and strong. Ground and crown fires are divided into stable and runaway fires according to the speed of fire spread.

Peatlands burn without a flame, with the accumulation of a large amount of heat. Peat fires continue for a very long time, it is difficult to extinguish them.

Methods of fighting forest fires. The main conditions for the effectiveness of fighting forest fires are the assessment and forecast of fire danger in the forest. State forestry authorities control the state of protection in the territory of the forest fund.

To organize fire extinguishing, it is necessary to determine the type of fire, its characteristics, the direction of its spread, natural barriers (places that are especially dangerous for intensifying the fire), the forces and means necessary to fight it.

When extinguishing a forest fire, the following main stages are distinguished: stopping, localization, extinguishing the fire and guarding the fire (preventing the possibility of catching fire from unexplained sources of combustion).

There are two main methods of fighting a fire according to the nature of the impact on the combustion process: direct and indirect fire extinguishing.

The first method is used when extinguishing ground fires of medium and low intensity with a propagation speed of up to 2m/min. and flame height up to 1.5m. An indirect method of extinguishing a fire in a forest is based on the creation of protective strips along the path of its spread.

Biological emergencies

These include epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties.

Epidemic - a widespread infectious disease among people, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given area.

A pandemic is an unusually large spread of morbidity both in terms of level and scale of distribution, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.

All infectious diseases are divided into four groups:

• intestinal infections;
• respiratory tract infections (aerosol);
• blood (transmissible);
• infections of the outer integument (contact).

Epizootics. Infectious animal diseases are a group of diseases that have such common features as the presence of a specific pathogen, cyclical development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one, and to take on epizootic spread.

All infectious diseases of animals are divided into five groups:

The first group - alimentary infections are transmitted through soil, feed, water. The organs of the digestive system are mainly affected. Pathogens are transmitted through infected feed, soil, manure. Such infections include anthrax, foot and mouth disease, glanders, brucellosis.

The second group - respiratory infections - damage to the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and lungs. These include: parainfluenza, exotic pneumonia, sheep and goat pox, canine distemper.

The third group - transmissible infections, the mechanism of their transmission is carried out with the help of blood-sucking arthropods. These include: encephalomyelitis, tularemia, infectious anemia of horses.

The fourth group - infections, the causative agents of which are transmitted through the outer integument without the participation of carriers. These include: tetanus, rabies, cowpox.

Fifth group - infections with unexplained pathways of damage, i.e. unqualified group.

Epiphytotics. To assess the scale of plant diseases, the following concepts are used epiphytoty and panphytoty.

Epiphytoty - the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a period of time.

Panphytotia - mass diseases covering several countries or continents.

Plant diseases are classified according to the following criteria:

• place or phase of plant development (diseases of seeds, seedlings, seedlings, adult plants);
• place of manifestation (local, local, general);
• course (acute, chronic);
• affected culture;
• cause of occurrence (infectious, non-infectious).

Space is one of the elements that influence earthly life. Dangers threatening from outer space:

Asteroids - these are small planets, the diameter of which varies between 1-1000 km. Currently, about 300 space bodies are known that can cross the Earth's orbit. In total, according to the forecasts of astronomers, there are approximately 300 thousand in space. asteroids and comets.

The meeting of our planet with celestial bodies poses a serious threat to the entire biosphere. Calculations show that the impact of an asteroid with a diameter of about 1 km is accompanied by the release of energy ten times greater than the entire nuclear potential available on Earth.

It is supposed to develop a system of planetary protection against asteroids and comets, which is based on two principles of protection, namely, changing the trajectory of dangerous space objects or destroying it into several parts.

It has a huge impact on earthly life solar radiation.

Solar radiation acts as a powerful healing and preventive factor, at the same time it poses a rather serious danger, excessive solar radiation leads to the development of severe erythema with skin edema and deterioration in health. Special literature describes cases of skin cancer in people who are constantly exposed to excessive solar radiation.

Actions of the population in a natural disaster

To attract attention in emergency cases, sirens, as well as other signaling means, are turned on before the transmission of information. Sirens and intermittent beeps of enterprises, vehicles mean the civil defense signal "Attention to all." In this case, it is necessary to immediately turn on the loudspeaker, radio or television receiver and listen to the message of the civil defense headquarters. With the threat of an earthquake, such a message may begin with the words:

« Attention! Says the headquarters of the civil defense of the city.. Citizens! Due to possible..».

People actions:

a) with a warning signal:

"Attention everyone!" (sirens, intermittent beeps)

Upon hearing the “Attention everyone!” signal, people need to do the following:

1. Immediately turn on the radio or TV to listen to the emergency messages of the civil defense headquarters.
2. Inform neighbors and relatives about what happened, bring the children home and act in accordance with the information you receive.
3. At need for evacuation do the following recommendations:

• pack in a small suitcase (or backpack) essentials, documents, money, valuables;
• pour water into a container with a tight-fitting lid, prepare canned and dry food;
• prepare the apartment for conservation (close windows, balconies; turn off the supply of gas, water, electricity, put out the fire in the stoves; prepare a second copy of the keys for delivery to the REP; take the necessary clothing and personal protective equipment);
• help the elderly and sick living in the neighborhood.

The population living in landslide, mudflow, collapse and avalanche zones should know the sources, possible directions and characteristics of these dangerous phenomena. Based on forecasts, residents are informed in advance about the danger of landslides, mudflows, landslides and about possible zones their actions, as well as the procedure for signaling danger. This reduces the impact of stress and panic that can arise from the transmission of emergency information about an imminent threat.

The population of dangerous mountainous regions is obliged to take care of strengthening the houses and the territory on which they are built, to participate in the construction of protective hydraulic and other engineering structures.

Primary information about the threat of landslides, mudflows and collapses comes from landslide and mudflow stations, parties and posts of the hydrometeorological service. It is important that this information be brought to the destination in a timely manner. The notification of the population about natural disasters is carried out in the prescribed manner by means of sirens, radio, television, as well as local warning systems that directly connect the units of the hydrometeorological service, the Ministry of Emergency Situations with settlements located in dangerous zones.

If there is a threat of a landslide, mudflow or collapse, an early evacuation of the population, farm animals and property to safe places is organized.

Houses or apartments abandoned by residents are brought into a state that helps to reduce the consequences of a natural disaster and the possible impact of secondary factors, facilitating their excavation and restoration later. Therefore, the transferred property from the yard or balcony must be removed into the house, the most valuable thing that cannot be taken with you, sheltered from moisture and dirt. Close doors, windows, ventilation and other openings tightly. Turn off electricity, gas, water. Remove flammable and toxic substances from the house and place in remote pits or separate cellars. In all other respects, you should proceed in accordance with the procedure established for organized evacuation.

In the event that there was no advance warning of the danger and the residents were warned about the threat immediately before the onset of a natural disaster or noticed its approach themselves, everyone, not caring about property, makes an emergency exit to a safe place on their own. At the same time, relatives, neighbors, all people meeting along the way should be warned about the danger. For an emergency exit, you need to know the directions of movement to the nearest safe places. These paths are determined and communicated to the population on the basis of the forecast of the most probable directions of the arrival of a landslide (mudflow) to a given settlement (object).

Avalanche actions

Before the avalanche struck!

1. Going to the mountains, you need to familiarize yourself with the maps of avalanche hazards and consult with experts.
2. After heavy snowfalls, it is necessary to postpone the exits to the mountains for 2 - 3 days, waiting until the avalanches come down, or the snow settles. When declaring an avalanche danger, one should generally refrain from hiking in the mountains.
3. If you still find yourself in the mountains, then in no case go out onto steep snowy slopes, but move only along roads and well-found paths at the bottom of valleys and along ridges.
4. You can not go to the snow cornices, cross the slopes across or move along them in a zigzag. As a last resort, go down the slope along the line of falling water - "on the forehead." Immediately return to a safe place if you feel that the snow layer under your feet is sagging and you hear a characteristic hissing sound.
5. If you need to cross a steep snowy slope, you must:

• Check the stability of the snow cover. Coming to the edge of the slope with insurance,
• Post an observer over the top of the slope,
• Zip up clothes, loosen avalanche cords, remove hands from lanyards of ski poles, loosen backpack straps,
• Cross the slope strictly one track after the next.

When organizing an overnight stay, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of avalanches coming down from both sides of the valley. Do not stop in avalanche areas.

Actions of the population in the danger zone

Observe the basic rules of conduct in avalanche areas:

• do not go to the mountains in snowfall and bad weather;
• being in the mountains, monitor the weather;
• when going out into the mountains, know in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bhis path or walk the places of possible avalanches.

Avoid areas where avalanches may occur. They most often descend from slopes with a steepness of more than 30 ', if the slope is without bushes and trees - with a steepness of more than 20 '. With a steepness of more than 45 ', avalanches come down almost every snowfall.

In conditions of the threat of avalanches, control over the accumulation of snow in avalanche-prone directions is organized, artificial descent of emerging avalanches is caused, protective structures are built in avalanche-prone directions, rescue equipment is prepared and rescue operations are planned.

If the avalanche breaks high enough, quickly move or run out of the path of the avalanche to a safe place or take cover behind a rock ledge, in a recess (you cannot hide behind young trees). If it is impossible to get away from the avalanche, get rid of things, take a horizontal position, pulling your knees to your stomach and orienting your body in the direction of the avalanche. Close the nose and mouth with a mitten, scarf, collar; moving in an avalanche, with swimming movements of the hands try to stay on the surface of the avalanche, moving to the edge, where the speed is lower. When the avalanche has stopped, try to create space around your face and chest to help you breathe. If possible, move towards the top (the top can be determined with the help of saliva, allowing it to flow out of the mouth). Once in an avalanche, do not scream - the snow completely absorbs sounds, and screams and senseless movements will only deprive you of strength, oxygen and heat. Don't lose your temper, don't let yourself fall asleep.

Actions after an avalanche

• report by any means about the incident to the administration of the nearest settlement and start searching and rescuing the victims.
• getting out from under the snow on their own or with the help of rescuers, inspect their body and, if necessary, help themselves. When you reach the nearest settlement, report the incident to the local administration. Contact a first-aid post or a doctor, even if you think you are healthy. Then proceed as directed by the doctor or the head of the rescue team.
• inform your family and friends about your condition and whereabouts

If your companion got into an avalanche!

1. Try to trace the path of his movement in the avalanche. After it stops, if there is no danger of another avalanche, start looking for a comrade down from the place where you saw him in last time. As a rule, the victim lies between the point of disappearance and the location of the lightest items of his equipment.
2. Having found the victim, first of all, free his Head and chest from snow, clear the airways, and then provide him with first medical aid.
3. If within half an hour it was not possible to find the victim on their own, it is necessary to call a rescue team.

Actions during the convergence of mudflows and landslides.

- Usually, the places where mudflows can go are known. Before going to the mountains, you need to study these places on the route of your movement and avoid them, especially after heavy rains. Always remember that it is almost impossible to escape if caught in a mudflow. You can save yourself from a mudflow only by avoiding it.

– Before leaving the house, in case of early evacuation, turn off electricity, gas and water supply. Close doors, windows and ventilation openings tightly.

- Having heard the noise of an approaching mudflow, you should immediately rise from the bottom of the hollow up the drain, at least 50-100 m. At the same time, you need to remember that stones of great weight that threaten life can be thrown out of the roaring stream for long distances.

- To provide assistance to the victims and assistance to the formations and bodies that sort out the blockages and drifts along the path of the mudflow and in the places where the main mass of the mudflow is removed.

- If you are injured, try to provide first aid to yourself. The affected areas of the body, if possible, should be kept in an elevated position, apply ice (wet matter) to them, a pressure bandage. Contact a doctor.

- In case of capture of someone by a moving stream of mudflow, it is necessary to provide assistance to the victim by all available means. Such means may be poles, ropes or ropes supplied to the rescued. It is necessary to take the rescued out of the stream in the direction of the stream with a gradual approach to its edge.

– During landslides, it is possible for people to fall under the ground, to strike and injure them with falling objects, building structures, trees. In these cases, it is necessary to quickly provide assistance to the victims, if necessary, give them artificial respiration.

In a sudden earthquake

Well, in this case, when the danger is too close and the earthquake threatens your life, you must:

At the first push, try to immediately leave the building within 15-20 seconds up the stairs or through the windows of the first floor (it is dangerous to use the elevator). Going downstairs, on the go knock on the doors of neighboring apartments, loudly notifying the neighbors about the need to leave the building. If you stayed in the apartment, stand in the doorway or in the corner of the room (near the main wall), away from windows, lamps, cabinets, hanging shelves and mirrors. Beware of pieces of plaster, glass, bricks, etc. falling on you, hide under a table or bed, turn away from the window and cover your head with your hands, avoid going out onto the balcony.

As soon as the tremors subside, immediately leave the building up the stairs, pressing your back against the wall. Try to turn off the gas, water, electricity, take a first-aid kit with you, the necessary things, close the door with a key. Do not let your actions cause panic.

If there are children and the elderly in neighboring apartments, break open the doors and help them get out into the street, give first aid to the wounded, call a pay phone " ambulance” or send a messenger to the nearest hospital for a doctor.

If an earthquake catches you driving, stop immediately (preferably in an open area) and get out of the car before the aftershocks end. In public transport, stay in your seats and ask the driver to open the doors; after tremors, calmly leave the salon without crushing.

Together with your neighbors, take part in clearing debris and extracting victims from under the rubble of buildings, using personal vehicles, crowbars, shovels, car jacks and other improvised means to extract them.

If it is impossible to remove people from the rubble by yourself, immediately report this to the headquarters for the elimination of the consequences of the earthquake (the nearest fire station, police station, military unit, etc.) for assistance. Dismantle the rubble until you are sure that there are no people under them. To detect victims, use all possible methods, locate people by voice and knock. After rescuing people and providing first aid, immediately send them on passing cars to the hospital.

Keep calm and order yourself, demand it from others. Together with your neighbors, stop the spread of panic rumors, all cases of robbery, looting, and other violations of the law, listen to messages on the local radio. If your house is destroyed, go to the collection point for medical and material assistance along the middle of the streets and bypassing buildings, poles and power lines.

Actions of the population during floods

During floods, people, agricultural and wild animals die, buildings, structures, communications are destroyed or damaged, other material and cultural values ​​are lost, economic activity is interrupted, crops die, fertile soils are washed away or flooded, the landscape changes, the sanitary and epidemiological situation is complicated. Flooding can occur suddenly and last from a few hours to 2-3 weeks. If your area is affected by flooding, study and remember the boundaries of possible flooding, as well as elevated, rarely flooded places located in the immediate vicinity of where you live, and the shortest routes to them. Familiarize family members with the rules of conduct for organized and individual evacuation in the event of a sudden and rapidly developing flood, as well as places to store boats, rafts and building materials for their manufacture. Make a list of documents, valuables, medicines, warm clothes, food supplies, water taken out during the evacuation in advance, and put everything in a special suitcase or backpack.

The signal "Attention everyone!", Transmitted by sirens, intermittent beeps of enterprises and vehicles, can warn of flooding. When you hear the signal, turn on the radio, TV (local program guide) and listen to the information and instructions to the public (diagram 1 and diagram 2). In the message about the threat of flooding, in addition to hydrometeorological data, they indicate the expected time of flooding, the boundaries of the flooded territory according to the forecast, the procedure for the population to act in case of flooding and evacuation.

An example of a flood report

Attention! Says the Main Directorate of EMERCOM of Russia in the Voronezh region.

Citizens! Due to the rise in the water level in the Don River, flooding of houses in the area of ​​Solnechnaya, Sadovaya, Cherry streets is expected. The population living on these streets must collect the necessary things, food and water, turn off gas and electricity, go to the Sokolovaya Gora area to evacuate to a safe zone.

Public actions for early warning of floods

1. Turn on the TV, radio, listen to the recommendations.
2. Turn off water, gas, electricity, put out the fire in the stove.
3. Create a supply of food and water in an airtight container.
4. Strengthen (hammer) the windows, doors of the lower floors.
5. Move your valuables to the upper floors.
6. Take the necessary things and documents. Follow the evacuation point.

Upon receipt of information about the beginning of the evacuation, you should quickly pack up and take with you: a package with documents and money, a first-aid kit; a three-day supply of food, bed linen and toiletries; a set of outerwear and shoes. All evacuees are required to arrive at the evacuation point by the set date to be registered and sent to a safe area. Depending on the current situation, the population is evacuated by vehicles specially allocated for this purpose or on foot. Upon arrival at the final destination, registration is carried out and transportation to accommodation places for temporary residence is organized.

In case of a flash flood (Scheme 3), it is recommended to take the nearest safe elevated place as soon as possible and be ready for an organized evacuation by water using various watercraft or on foot along the fords. In such an environment, one should not succumb to panic, lose self-control. It is necessary to take measures to allow rescuers to timely detect people cut off by water and in need of help. During the daytime, this is achieved by hanging a white or colored cloth on a high place, and at night - by giving light signals. Until the arrival of help, people who find themselves in the flood zone should remain on the upper floors and roofs of buildings, trees and other elevated places. Usually, staying in a flood zone lasts until the water subsides or help arrives.

Actions of the population in the event of a flash flood

Before help arrives

1. Evacuate to the nearest safe place.
2. Prepare boats or build a raft from improvised materials in case of forced self-evacuation.
3. Stay in the nearest safe place until the water recedes.
4. In the daytime, hang out a white or colored banner, at night, give light signals.

With forced self-evacuation

1. Quickly take the nearest high ground.
2. For evacuation, use a raft from improvised means.
3. Evacuate only when rising water levels threaten your safety.

The most important rule for people who find themselves in a flooded area is not to eat food that has come into contact with the incoming water, and not to drink unboiled water. Use wet electrical appliances only after thorough drying. People standing in water or in a damp room are prohibited from touching electrical wiring or electrical appliances.

Self-evacuation to an unflooded area is carried out only in hopeless situations - if it is necessary to provide emergency medical care to the victims, when water threatens your safety and there is no hope for rescuers. Lack of food (even for a long time) cannot be considered a valid reason for the risk of self-evacuation.

The decision on self-evacuation must be carefully thought out and well prepared: watercraft, protection from the cold, route and consideration of the situation (current, rise or fall of water, no signs of rescue activity, etc.).

If you find yourself in the water as a result of the flood, do not lose your temper. Diagram 4 describes the order of your actions.

Actions of a person in the water

Hold on to floating objects.

Tie a raft out of floating objects and climb onto it.

If there is a risk of drowning (no foot contact with the bottom), take off heavy clothing and shoes.

Push away dangerous objects with sharp protruding parts

Swim to the nearest realistically reachable unflooded area, taking into account the current drift, moving at an angle to it.

After the water subsides, you should beware of torn and sagging electrical wires. Products and supplies of drinking water that have fallen into the water must be checked by representatives of the sanitary inspection before use, and the existing wells with water should be drained by pumping. Before entering a house (or building) after a flood, you should make sure that its structures have not undergone obvious damage and do not pose a danger. Then it needs to be ventilated for several minutes by opening entrance doors or windows. When inspecting interior rooms, it is not recommended to use matches or lamps as a light source due to the possible presence of gas in the air; for these purposes, battery-powered electric lights should be used. Before checking the condition of the electrical network by specialists, it is forbidden to use sources of electricity for lighting or other needs. After opening all doors and windows, removing debris and excess moisture, dry the building.

Actions of the population in industrial accidents and disasters

Industrial accidents and disasters

An accident is damage to a machine, machine tool, equipment, building, structure. There are accidents at public utility networks, industrial enterprises. If these incidents are not so significant and did not entail serious human casualties, they are usually classified as accidents.

A catastrophe is a major accident with a large loss of life, i.e. An event with very tragic consequences.
The main criterion in distinguishing between accidents and catastrophes is the severity of the consequences and the presence of human casualties.
As a result of industrial accidents, explosions and fires are possible, and their consequences are destruction and damage to buildings, machinery and equipment, flooding of the territory, failure of communication lines, energy and utility networks.
They are most frequent at enterprises that produce, use or store emergency chemically hazardous substances (AHOV). The consequences of accidents are explosions and fires.

During explosions, the shock wave not only leads to destruction, but also to human casualties. The degree and nature of the destruction depends, in addition to the power of the explosion, on the technical condition of the structures, the nature of the building and the terrain.
Which businesses are most likely to experience explosions? Where hydrocarbon gases (methane, ethane, propane) are used in large quantities. Boilers in boiler houses, gas equipment, products and semi-finished products of chemical plants, gasoline vapors and other components, flour in mills, dust in elevators, powdered sugar in sugar factories, wood dust in woodworking enterprises explode.

Explosions are possible in residential areas when people forget to turn off the gas. Explosions on gas pipelines occur with poor control over their condition and compliance with safety requirements during their operation, as happened in Bashkortostan on July 3, 1989. A mixture of propane, methane and gasoline exploded. The flames instantly covered a huge area. There were two passenger oncoming trains in the fiery cauldron. suffered a large number of people, many were injured and injured.

Firedamp explosions in mines lead to serious consequences, causing fires, landslides, flooding with groundwater. Sudden collapses of buildings, bridges, and other engineering structures bring great material damage, and in some cases human casualties. The reasons are errors in research and design, poor quality of construction work. On March 23, 1993, one of the workshops of the Bratsk aluminum plant turned into ruins. Under the rubble of the building were 14 night shift workers.
Fires occur everywhere: at industrial enterprises, agricultural facilities, educational institutions, preschool institutions, in residential buildings.
They arise during the transportation of fuel by all modes of transport. Chemicals such as turpentine, camphor, naphthalene ignite spontaneously. In the process of burning foam rubber, poisonous smoke is released, which leads to dangerous poisoning.
In the production process, under certain conditions, wood, coal, peat, aluminum, flour, grain dust, as well as cotton, flax, and hemp dust become dangerous and ignite.
In the summer of 1985, fine cotton fluff, which was formed after washing and drying clothes in the laundry room of the Cosmos Hotel (Moscow), clogged the ventilation shaft. Laundry workers decided to get rid of it with the help of ... fire, forgetting that under certain conditions it explodes like gunpowder. So, that's exactly what happened. As soon as a match was struck, an explosion thundered. Eight people were burned and injured. The shock wave tore apart the roof.

It seems the laundry is the most peaceful production, but it exploded.

On March 14, 1993, the largest fire in Russia in the last 10 years began. The plant for the production of engines burned down at KamAZ. The total fire area is 200 thousand m2. Restoration, or rather the construction of a new one, is still being done.
In the event of a catastrophe and a major accident, it is very important to promptly notify and organize the protection of workers and employees, all in the vicinity of the population living in danger.

First of all, it is necessary to organize rescue operations, provide first aid to the victims and deliver them to medical institutions. After reconnaissance of the affected areas of the object, localization and extinguishing of the fire are organized, measures are taken to prevent further destruction.
Separate structures that threaten to fall, collapse or, on the contrary, strengthen, carry out urgent work on the municipal energy networks. At the same time, compliance with safety requirements is of great importance. For example, it is forbidden to unnecessarily walk through the rubble, enter destroyed buildings, carry out work near structures that threaten to collapse. Do not touch bare wires and various electrical devices.
The area for rescue and restoration work must be fenced, guards and observers must be posted in a timely manner.
As a result of an accident or catastrophe, flammable and corrosive liquids can spread. This must be taken into account when organizing work.
The most characteristic types of injuries in accidents and catastrophes are wounds, bruises, bone fractures, ruptures and crushing of tissues, damage electric shock, burns, poisoning.

On rail transport

The main causes of accidents and disasters are malfunctions of the track, rolling stock, signaling, centralization and blocking means, dispatcher errors, inattention and negligence of drivers.
Most often, rolling stock derails, collisions, collisions with obstacles at crossings, fires and explosions directly in the cars occur. Washout of railway tracks, landslides, landslides, floods are not excluded. When transporting dangerous goods, such as gases, flammable, explosive, caustic, poisonous and radioactive substances, explosions, fires of tanks and other wagons occur. Eliminating such accidents is quite difficult.

Actions in case of an accident (catastrophe or crash) on railway transport.

Usually emergency braking occurs suddenly. If possible, the least traumatic place would be sitting on the floor. If you are standing, be sure to find yourself some kind of support. Rest your feet on a wall or seat, and hold onto the handrail with your hands. Muscles should be tensed to avoid damage to the bone apparatus. There may be several shocks, so do not relax until you realize that the movement of the train has finally stopped. Stay away from windows during an accident, as you can get injured from shrapnel. When buying tickets, you should be aware that the outermost carriages are damaged the most, in the center - the risk of severe damage is minimal. Each car has emergency windows. They should be used immediately after the train stops, as there is a high probability of a fire.

When leaving the car, take only the most necessary things with you: documents, money. Don't look for your luggage, it's not worth your life. Get out only on the field side to avoid getting hit by a train going on the other way. The most dangerous situation in which you can find yourself in the event of an accident on a railway transport is a fire. From open fire, you should go to other cars, closing the doors tightly behind you. Opening windows will be a big mistake. This will only increase the fire. Toxic gas - malminite, which is released during the melting of wagons, is life-threatening. Don't inhale it. Cover your nose and mouth with any damp cloth or piece of clothing. When moving, the train car can completely burn out within half an hour. In this case, the evacuation should take place very quickly and clearly. Once in a safe place, start helping other passengers. Don't give in to panic. Follow the instructions of conductors and other employees of the train. After leaving the damaged train, you should move away from it for a long distance. If there is smoke and fire, then an explosion is possible later. You can protect yourself from a broken electrical wire in case of an accident on a railway transport if you move in small jumps. By doing so, you can avoid being affected by step voltage. It can usually spread up to 30 m on damp ground. In situations where doors and emergency exits are blocked by stones, water, mudflows, you should remain calm and let them know about your location by knocking. Rescue teams will definitely come to the aid of all the victims.

Car accidents and disasters

The causes of road traffic accidents can be very different. First of all, these are violations of traffic rules, a technical malfunction of a car, speeding, insufficient training of persons driving cars, their weak reaction, and low emotional stability. Often the cause of accidents and disasters is driving a car by persons in a state of intoxication. Serious traffic accidents result from non-compliance with the rules for the transport of dangerous goods and the failure to comply with the necessary safety requirements.
Another cause of road accidents is poor road conditions.

Sometimes on the roadway you can see open hatches, unprotected and unlit areas of repair work, and the absence of danger signs. All this together leads to huge losses.

In order to protect yourself and your loved ones in case of accidents in road transport, you must follow the following recommendations:

• Control your emotions, do not let go of the steering wheel until the collision. In this case, you will be able to drive the car to the end, and you may be able to rectify the situation or at least avoid serious damage;
• Passengers should group and provide head protection;
• The muscles must be in a tense state, so they will take on all the force of the blow, and not the bones;
• Do your best to resist moving your body forward;
• The driver needs to use the back of the seat as a support, tighten his muscles, and squeeze into it. You need to put your hands forward and rest them on the steering wheel;
• The side position is the safest, so if you are not wearing a seat belt, it is recommended to roll to the side;
• Do not attempt to get out of the vehicle until it has completely stopped. The chances of survival are increased by 10 times if you are inside the cabin, and do not jump out of it while moving;
• In case of overturning or in case of fire, the car should immediately leave the passenger compartment;

If there is a child next to you, then cover him with you and take a side position together. The most dangerous passenger seat is the front seat. This is due to the fact that upon impact, the door may jam and you will have to leave the passenger compartment through the windshield or window.

How to get out of a sinking car?

In most cases, when a car has fallen into a body of water, the people in it begin to panic and take rash actions, which exacerbate their situation. They simply do not quite understand what is happening with their vehicle at the moment.

The main actions in case of an accident on a road transport when it is immersed in water are as follows:

Unfasten your seat belt. Surprisingly, often people in a panic forget to do this, and desperate attempts to get out lead to its breakdown.

Help your passengers with seat belts, starting by seniority. Get out from the back of the car. Usually the car sinks, leaning forward due to the heavy engine. For some time after the fall, the car will be afloat.

Open windows first. By opening the doors, you let the flow of water into the cabin and the flooding will accelerate. You need to turn on the headlights, so it will be easier to find your car later. In addition, the light from them will help you navigate in muddy water.

If it is not possible to lower the windows, break them with any heavy object or with your feet. Heavy or metal objects in your pockets, as well as shoes, will interfere with your swimming.

If possible, get rid of all unnecessary things and clothes. Get the kids out of the car first. Explain to them that you need to push off on the roof of the car and swim quickly up.

Once on shore, report the incident and call for medical assistance. In such an extreme situation, a short action plan is suitable for memorization, which is as follows: "Belt, window, children, exit." Remember that due to stress and adrenaline, you may not feel injuries, so a doctor's examination is a must.

In the event of a disaster, the main thing is to provide first aid to the victims in a timely manner. And this should be done no later than the first 20, at most 30 minutes. Otherwise it will be too late.

It must be borne in mind that the driver and passengers are most often injured in the head, limbs and chest from impacts with door structures, the steering column, the front wall of the body and the windshield. Additional injuries are caused by objects in the car. Pedestrians receive the most damage from bumpers, fenders, headlights, and hoods. About 60% of all injuries are the result of a secondary impact on the roadway, a curbstone.

What to do? Every driver of a passing car, every pedestrian must immediately take all possible measures to save people, provide them with the very first medical aid, especially to stop bleeding. Traffic police officers, emergency medical and technical assistance are called to the scene.

The crash site is protected by warning signs.
The victims, after providing them with first aid, are taken to the nearest medical institutions.
The main work in case of major car accidents is carried out by special teams with truck cranes, technical assistance vehicles with metal cutting devices, rack jacks, wedges, grosses and other necessary tools.

Aviation accidents and disasters

Aviation accidents are accidents that did not lead to human casualties, but caused the destruction of the aircraft of varying degrees.

A disaster is an accident with human casualties.

The destruction of individual aircraft structures, engine failure, disruption of control systems, power supply, communications, piloting, lack of fuel, interruptions in the life support of the crew and passengers lead to serious consequences. Today, perhaps the most dangerous and common tragedy on board an aircraft is fire and explosion.

Airplane fire: rules of conduct

A fire during flight can occur due to different reasons. This can be facilitated by a breakdown on board, an unforeseen situation during landing or takeoff, or an electrical short circuit. In addition, often the passengers themselves become the culprits of such a terrible and dangerous situation. Some people simply ignore the prohibitions on smoking on board and the use of open flames. Actions in case of fire in an aircraft include the following: Before the flight, carefully listen to the flight attendant, who explains the location of not only the main entrances on board, but also where the emergency exits are located. Remember how far you are from the exit, count the seats to be able to navigate by touch in a smoky cabin. In the event of a fire, do not try at all costs to get to the exit through which you boarded the plane. Almost all passengers will do this, and there will be a crush. Remember about emergency exits, most often there are very few people there. There is only 1.5-2 minutes to evacuate from a burning plane. Do not linger at the inflated ladder. No need to squat down and move out quietly. Just jump on it. Get rid of all flammable clothing. This is especially true for girls. Leggings and nylon tights will need to be removed so as not to get severe burns. Also remove high-heeled shoes to avoid dislocations, injury to other passengers, and damage to the emergency slide. Hold it in your hands so that once on the ground you can quickly put on shoes. Cover open areas of the skin with a dense cloth made of natural materials. Protect head and respiratory tract from combustion products. In cases of heavy smoke, it is necessary to bend down to the floor or crawl to the exit. Do not open hatches yourself. This action can intensify the flame. If the fire occurred during the flight, then you should prepare for a hard landing. Smaller fires can be dealt with using the available fire extinguishers on board. Remember that flight attendants and crew are doing everything to save passengers and the aircraft, so do not ignore their instructions, do not panic or interfere with their work.

Aircraft depressurization: what to do to survive?

The loss of tightness by an aircraft under the influence of internal or external factors is called depressurization. In this situation, decompression is extremely dangerous. It represents a sharp drop in air pressure in the cabin.

At the same time, it can be extremely fast, accompanied by loud noise and the sound of air leaving the cabin, and slow, when its signs are detected only when hypoxia occurs. In the event of a depressurization in an aircraft, the actions must be clear and quick, as the loss of even a few minutes can cost you your life. This situation often leads to accidents in which no one manages to survive.

However, modern aircraft provide a security system that can help passengers even in such a seemingly hopeless situation. Fasten your seat belts. They will be able to keep you in the chair, and you will not be carried away by the air flow from the cabin. Put on an oxygen mask immediately. A common mistake is to put the mask on your face and hold it with your hand.

With any strong shaking or deterioration of health, the mask will fall out and you will suffocate. Take care of yourself first, then help your loved ones and neighbors. Don't get up. Group as instructed. The mask will allow you to breathe normally for 15 minutes. This time may be enough for pilots to lower the board to a height of 3 km, at which the air is not so strongly discharged. In this case, people will be able to breathe on their own without causing severe harm to health.

Accidents at hydraulic structures

The danger of flooding of low-lying areas occurs when dams, dams and hydroelectric facilities are destroyed. The immediate danger is the rapid and powerful flow of water, causing damage, flooding and destruction of buildings and structures. Casualties among the population and various violations occur due to the high speed and the huge amount of running water sweeping everything in its path. The height and speed of the breakthrough wave depend on the size of the destruction of the hydraulic structure and the difference in heights in the upstream and downstream. For flat areas, the speed of the breakthrough wave varies from 3 to 25 km/h, in mountainous areas it reaches 100 km/h.
Significant areas of the terrain in 15 - 30 minutes. Usually they are flooded with a layer of water with a thickness of 0.5 to 10 m or more. The time during which territories can be under water ranges from several hours to several days.
There are diagrams and maps for each hydroelectric complex, which show the boundaries of the flood zone and give a characteristic of the breakthrough wave. The construction of housing and businesses is prohibited in this zone.

In the event of a dam break, all means are used to alert the population: sirens, radio, television, telephone and loudspeakers. Having received the signal, it is necessary to immediately evacuate to the nearest elevated areas. Stay in a safe place until the water subsides or a message is received that the danger has passed.
When returning to their original places, beware of broken wires. Do not consume foods that have been in contact with water streams. Do not take water from open wells. Before entering the house, one must carefully inspect it and make sure that there is no danger of destruction. Be sure to ventilate the building before entering. Do not use matches - gas may be present. Take all measures to dry the building, floors and walls. Remove all wet debris.

Experience shows that any of us, often against our will, may find ourselves in a situation in which he has no one to count on and needs to hold out at any cost, no matter - a few hours before dawn or a few days, weeks, months before the arrival of help. You will learn how to provide yourself with water, food, warmth in winter and shelter from the heat in summer. The author gives advice that has been tested on his own experience and convincingly proves that not so much is needed to survive in any conditions - the desire to survive, certain knowledge and self-confidence.

* * *

The following excerpt from the book Primer on Survival in Extreme Situations (Igor Molodan, 2016) provided by our book partner - the company LitRes.

1. Emergencies

Survival

Survival in our days is of increasing interest, which is connected, no matter how strange it may seem at first glance, with the urbanization of society. There is nothing surprising in the fact that unprepared people, getting into critical situations, lose a sense of self-confidence, stop thinking and acting adequately. Depending on the circumstances, such behavior can lead not only to serious consequences for health, but also to death. That is why it is worth studying ways and methods of survival in a variety of situations that threaten life and health.

To date, it is customary to distinguish between two main areas in the science of survival - forced survival and voluntary survival. Supporters of the second call themselves autonomists, and any of us can be in the position of the first. The only difference is that autonomists have the opportunity to choose equipment. The tips collected in the book can be applied not only during autonomous survival, whether forced or voluntary, but also in a normal trip. After all, the second is de facto formed separate view tourism, although differing in its goals and objectives from other types of tourism.

social survival is a set of measures aimed at maintaining health and performance in emergency situations associated with a person's stay in society. These can be accidents and disasters of a different nature (man-made, natural, in transport, in a combat zone). Wherein highest value have adaptive properties, physical condition and special knowledge.

offline survival is a set of measures aimed at maintaining health and performance in the wild.

Forced autonomous survival arises as a result of an unforeseen situation. Often it turns out to be associated with being in adverse conditions, for example, in a deserted area, caused by various factors (accidents, disasters, natural disasters, military conflicts, etc.). In any case, a significant impact on the prospects of survivors is their preparedness in the broadest sense: both the necessary knowledge and skills, and equipment, and physical form.

Depending on various factors ( general state, prospects of being quickly found by rescuers, etc.) forced autonomous survival can be active and passive.

Active autonomous survival - a set of actions aimed at the fastest way out of an emergency; almost always the main criterion is the decision to leave the scene. The factors determining the transition to active autonomous survival are the good physical and mental condition of the victims and favorable conditions (proximity to roads, settlements, etc.).

Passive Autonomous Survival - a set of actions aimed primarily at waiting for rescue at the scene or not far from it. When making a decision, the physical and mental condition of the victims, the presence of the wounded, weather conditions, confidence in the prompt deployment of search and rescue operations, etc. are also taken into account.

According to the time frame, forced autonomous survival can be short-term and long-term.

Short-term forced autonomous survival implies the minimum necessary time to reach people on the condition that the victims (one or a group, it doesn’t matter; if there are no special reservations, there are no significant differences in actions) made the decision to move from the moment a critical situation arose. Passive survival can also be considered as short-term autonomous survival, in which the victims were found and received the necessary assistance in a time sufficient to reach people if they had decided to move.

Long-term forced autonomous survival (autonomous existence) does not have a strict time frame and is associated with the presence of a victim or a group of victims for various reasons in an area untouched by human activity until they are discovered, assisted and evacuated.

Tourist offline survival- this is a planned set of activities of a scientific or recreational nature, aimed at exploring the possibilities of maintaining health and performance in an area untouched by human activity.

Tourism Survival Goals are determined from the very essence of the concept of tourist survival. They are:

Preservation of health in various natural and climatic conditions;

Maintaining efficiency, expressed in full-fledged activity in an area untouched by human activity, using limited resources;

The study of the psychological aspects of human behavior in an unfamiliar area and the development of scientific recommendations for overcoming adverse impact factors environment.

Tourist Survival Tasks:

Practicing movement techniques in areas untouched by human activity;

Practice in orienteering in various ways;

The study of plants and animals, including those suitable for human consumption or medical use;

Search for water sources and development of methods for its extraction and purification;

Construction and arrangement of shelters, creations comfortable conditions existence, the manufacture of clothing and equipment, etc., regardless of natural conditions.

Tourist survival can be expeditionary and sports.

Expeditionary Survival is aimed at developing and improving theoretical knowledge related to the preservation of human health and performance in various natural and climatic conditions.

sports survival sets itself the goals of holding events of a competitive nature between autonomists with the fulfillment of certain tasks and standards.

The main stages of survival:

1. Movement in an area untouched by human activity.

2. Practicing survival skills in the selected region:

Search (or obtaining) water and food;

Making a fire and cooking;

Building a shelter and making the necessary equipment;

Medical aspects of survival.

3. Orientation and access to people.

Autonomous survival has already become a full-fledged type of extreme tourism. Its extremeness lies in the difficulty of predicting the development of the situation associated with being in the wild, certain risks not only for the health of the survivor, but also for his life. At the same time, tourist survival should not turn into a covert suicide attempt. It must be organized and carefully planned. The minimum amount of multifunctional equipment must be carried with you, while convinced survivalists try to use it in exceptional situations related to the preservation of life and health, when the basic methods and methods of autonomous survival turned out to be insufficient.

The main difference between autonomous survival and other types of tourism is the rejection of traditional equipment, food and water supplies. Routes in autonomous survival are chosen in an area untouched by human activity, far from settlements. The schedule and pace of movement in offline survival do not have strict restrictions. The main task is to reach the final destination without compromising the physical and emotional level.

The key to successful implementation of activities related to the preservation of the health and performance of a survivor in various conditions, is properly selected clothing and equipment. Only equipment that is laborious to manufacture in natural conditions (knife, flask) is permissible.

A set of measures to preserve the health and working capacity of a survivor should not upset the balance of the region's ecosystem, expressed in the ill-conceived extermination of flora and fauna, pollution and destruction of water sources, careless behavior with fire. The use of natural resources is allowed solely to replenish the energy costs and the water-salt balance of the survivor's body, ensure safe movement, create comfortable conditions for a good rest and restore the expended physical effort.

Train disaster

Precautionary measures:

It is best to be located in the carriages of electric trains and trains that are in the middle of the train, as they suffer the least during an accident; the safest shelves are the lower ones, located in the direction of the train;

Bulky and heavy things must be placed down, as with a strong push they can fall from the upper shelves and cause injury;

You can not clutter up the doors in the compartment at night, as in the dark it will be difficult to get out;

Before going to bed, you need to remember where the clothes, documents and money are; essentials and valuables are best placed under the pillow;

At night, it is better to remove food, bottles, etc. from the table so that you do not get hurt in a collision;

On the side shelves reserved seat cars sleep better with feet forward along the course of the train to avoid neck injuries during a collision or emergency braking.

In the event of a railway accident, you need to try to grab hold of the fixed parts of the car with your hands, group up and cover your head with your hands.

When turning the car over, firmly holding onto your shelf with your hands, you need to rest with your feet firmly against the top shelf, wall, etc. and close your eyes so that glass fragments do not get into them. After the car gains stability, you should look around and outline exit routes. If there is no danger of fire, there is no need to rush to get out, it would be more correct to provide first aid to the victims, calm the children, and prevent panic. You need to get out of the car one at a time, helping women, children and the elderly.

If the car is overturned or damaged, you will have to get out through the windows, opening the transoms or breaking the windows. In the latter case, it is necessary to clean the frames from fragments. In the event of a break in the wires of the contact network, you should move away from the cars by 30–50 m so as not to fall under the step voltage. After evacuation to a safe place, you must immediately report the incident to the emergency dispatcher.

The most dangerous is the fall of the wagon into the river. In this case, you need to remember that the windows of the 3rd and 6th compartments of most cars are emergency exits. If the car is filled with water, you don’t need to try to get out right away - its pressure will be very strong, the resistance of the elements will lead to a waste of strength. It is better to spend these 10-20 seconds looking for documents and valuables. It is best to start getting out when the pressure of the water outside and inside begins to equalize. This usually happens after the wagon is about ⅔ full of water. In a place already covered with water, any metal object needs to break the window. Next, you need to take a few deep breaths and exhalations, draw full lungs of air and throw the body outward with an intense push; actively working with your arms and legs, rise to the surface of the water.

Shipwreck

Panic in such a situation is more dangerous than in many other circumstances. Without succumbing to it, you must try to clearly and quickly follow all the instructions of the captain. First of all, passengers need to put on life jackets and remove clothes and shoes that restrict movement. Then you need to take the documents, wrapping them in an airtight package that every ship traveler should have, and putting it under his underwear. Quickly, but without fuss, climb to the upper deck and, following the instructions of the captain and crew, board a lifeboat or raft, helping those in need and letting children and women go ahead.

If it is not possible to board the boat, and the life jacket is not available for any reason, you need to look for any floating object (lifebuoy, board, empty plastic bottle with a lid, etc.) and, looking around, jump into the water with your feet down. Once in the water, you need to swim away from the ship for 200-300 m, so as not to be pulled under the water or the bottom of the ship. In the future, everyone in the water needs to come together to help each other and organize joint rescue actions.

Seeing a boat in which there are free places, you should swim up to it from the stern; Under no circumstances should you jump on board. If there are no places in the boat, you need to ask to throw a cable (rope), tie it around your waist and continue to sail in tow. It is important to save strength and periodically massage the limbs to restore blood circulation.

During a long voyage in a boat, you should not drink sea water. In the presence of fresh water it is better to mix it with the sea in a ratio of 3: 1, so that the stock is enough for as long as possible. With strong thirst, you need to periodically moisten a piece of cloth with sea water and wipe the body and head. To catch fish, you should use the tackle that should be in every lifeboat. You can squeeze juice from fish and drink it instead of water. Never give up hope of salvation. You should fight for life in every possible way.

If you are picked up by a passing ship, you need to provide your details, the name of the ship, the time and place of the disaster (at least approximately), as well as the number of people who survived.

Air accident

In the event of an emergency in the air, you must strictly follow all the instructions of the crew commander and flight attendants. If there is no command, fasten seat belts, remove all sharp objects, jewelry, watches, hold children close to you, lean forward in a chair and grab your head with both hands. Do not attempt to get up from your seat until the aircraft has come to a complete stop. Remember, all movements break the alignment and complicate the work of the crew. In any case, you should remain calm and prevent the occurrence of panic in the cabin.

After stopping the movement of the aircraft, you must immediately, following the sequence, leave it using emergency hatches (the rules for using them are shown on them) and inflatable ladders. After evacuation, you should move away from the aircraft as far as possible, helping the wounded and children, and lie down on the ground, covering your head with your hands, if a fire starts.

After the evacuation of all passengers, it is necessary to try to provide first aid to the wounded. On your own or with the help of other passengers, you need to build sheds from improvised materials for children and the wounded; look for water sources and send some of the most trained people for help.

In the event of a depressurization of the aircraft cabin at high altitude, it is first necessary to put on an oxygen mask. Do not press it against your face, but put it on, because even in a mask you can lose consciousness, but it should not fall off your face. Then you should help to put on masks for children and those passengers who were not able to do this on their own. After that, you should buckle up and follow all the instructions of the flight attendants and crew. The crew will do everything necessary to occupy such a height at which high-altitude hypoxia does not occur.

In a fire, smoke fills the cabin very quickly. The design of most airliners is such that in the event of a fire, passengers have a maximum of 2-3 minutes to leave the aircraft. You will have to move to the emergency exit in conditions of smoke on all fours. If the passage is blocked, the instructions advise you to lower the backs of the chairs and move around them.

Man-made accident

If toxic substances are released into the air, cover your nose and mouth with a handkerchief, collar, scarf, etc. to purify the air you breathe. Next, you need to notify the emergency services and leave the infection zone as soon as possible.

If possible, it is best to proceed to the place of residence or any other room that has not been infected. There you need to take off your outer clothing and wash it; if this is not possible, the clothes should be folded into a sealed bag (for example, plastic), close all windows and doors and caulk the cracks with a wet cloth, turn off ventilation devices and air conditioners.

If there are obvious signs of poisoning (dizziness, nausea, vomiting, etc.), you should immediately seek medical help. In the absence of signs of poisoning, it is advisable to take a shower or at least thoroughly wash exposed areas of the body and hair.

You should not hide in basements or cellars, as toxic gases heavier than air accumulate near the surface of the earth.

After eliminating the consequences of the accident, you should not eat vegetables, fruits and herbs without special treatment. It is dangerous to eat milk and dairy products, eggs, as well as the meat of animals slaughtered after an alarm in an infected area, drink tap water and water from open sources, since all this can be contaminated.

Residents of megacities are strongly advised by experts to avoid places with heavy traffic, try not to go out during rush hours. Unnecessarily, you should also not be in industrial areas, especially on foggy days. If going out with children cannot be avoided, it is best to hold babies in your arms, and not carry them in strollers and do not drive them by the hand, since most of the toxic substances from exhaust gases accumulate at a height of up to 1 m from the ground (this is especially noticeable in the early morning). You should not walk through tunnels and galleries, i.e. places most polluted with exhaust gases; parks and squares are much better suited for walking. Remember that in residential areas, the main sources of air pollution are smoking and the use of gas stoves, coal and kerosene heating, the use of artificial insulation materials, and the contents of aerosol cans.

Armed conflict

It would not be an exaggeration to say that for a civilian who, by the will of fate, found himself in a zone of armed conflict, the main goal is survival and an early exit from the combat zone.

Clothing should not be bright and defiant. Military-style clothing is highly undesirable. Do not carry or wear expensive items and jewelry.

During bombing and shelling, you do not need to hide under tall buildings and stay in apartments, it is better to hide in a bomb shelter, basement or cellar. It is also advisable to avoid crowded places, gas stations and supermarkets.

If the terrain and weather conditions allow, you can hide in a forest belt, which is poorly visible to snipers.

In case of evacuation or moving to another place, you should not take a lot of things, as this attracts the attention of marauders. You only need to take documents and the most necessary for survival - clothes, described on p. 55–68 wearable emergency supply, first aid kit and money. It is better to hide the main amount of money and jewelry in advance in a place inaccessible to strangers.

While moving, it is advisable to always keep your hands in sight, and have a white handkerchief in one of the outer pockets in order to be able to signal your status to military patrols.

If a meeting with a patrol could not be avoided, one should not panic, let alone try to escape. In this situation, it is better to follow all the orders of people with weapons as calmly as possible. At the first request, it is necessary to present documents and try to convince the patrol that there are no aggressive intentions whatsoever. If there is a curfew, you don't need to break it without special reasons.

You should not travel in an expensive car. It without special ceremonies can simply be taken away.

It should also be borne in mind that when trying to cross the line separating the warring parties, the probability of falling under fire is extremely high; this is even more true at night. In addition, despite the best efforts of the International Movement to Ban Anti-Personnel Mines, they are used almost everywhere, and it is almost impossible to see such an explosive device at night.

Covert movement

Silent walking. It is necessary to walk so that the efforts come from the hip, and not from the knee. Steps should be somewhat shorter than usual. The foot is placed on the ground easily and gently. When moving over short distances, it is better to put the foot on the toe, slowly transferring body weight to the entire foot. When moving long distances, the front leg should first rest on the heel, and the back leg should bend slightly. It is advisable to place your foot so that it can be immediately raised if an object that can become a source of noise comes across on the way. Usually the heel makes noise, especially where there are a lot of branches, stones, etc.

To walk without noise through the forest, steps must be made shorter than usual, put the foot on the ground with a soft, groping movement. If there are a lot of branches under your feet, before stepping, you need to push them apart with your toe, feel for solid ground and step on. Taking aside the branches that block the path, one must not throw them away, but silently return them to their previous position. At dusk or darkness, it is recommended to lower the visor of the headgear to eye level, bend the left arm slightly at the elbow and hold it in front of you at face height, checking the space in front of you by moving it up and down.

Movement on viscous ground requires additional expenditure of energy to stretch the legs and maintain balance. In this case, it is better to move in short steps, quickly rearranging the legs so that they do not have time to go deep into the soil. The foot should be placed on the entire foot, the movement should be facilitated by the energetic work of the hands. It is advisable to choose more solid areas of soil, furrows, bumps, clay ledges. If necessary, small jumps are allowed.

Moving on slippery surfaces the leg should be placed on the entire foot. At least one hand must be free to maintain balance. During movement, the muscles of the legs must be constantly kept in tension.

When walking through tall grass it is recommended to raise your legs higher and put them on the ground from the toe.

To attenuate the sound of steps, you can sheathe the soles with fur patches or wrap them with soft rags. Regardless of the conditions in which you have to move, you should do it carefully, carefully choosing the route.

When traveling in shallow water, in order not to create noise, the leg should be lowered gradually from the toe, dragging it forward through the water in a sliding motion, as when skiing.

Movement at night. At nightfall, the sensitivity of the eyes gradually increases, reaching a maximum value after about 50-60 minutes.

A few words about masking. Headgear with a clear outline should not be used. To hide or distort the contours of the figure, cut branches of trees and shrubs are most often used. It is preferable to use large branches (0.7–1 m or more) - they fade more slowly; algae, reeds, sedge and moss in cut form retain their color for up to 15 days. The branches of maple, oak, birch, linden, ash and poplar in the summer retain their green color for no more than two days, the leaves on the branches of aspen, acacia, hazel curl and blacken after a few hours. Branches of pine and spruce last 10–12 days in summer, and up to 80 days in winter.

Burnt tree bark, charcoal, mud, berry and plant juice can be used as pigments that are applied to mask open areas of the body; all these substances to a certain extent mask the smell of the body.

Determination of prescription and direction of traces

Knowing a few simple ways to determine the age of traces and the direction of movement of the person or car that left them will allow you to feel more confident in an armed conflict zone.

For human footprints the following rules apply:

When walking, a person consistently leaves traces of heels, soles and socks;

When running, only a small part of the foot remains, most often the toe, while the distance between the prints is more than 90 cm;

Trained people (athletes, tourists, hunters, etc.) walk with even steps, with an energetic back push;

The person carrying the load puts the feet parallel and slightly wider than usual, while the step size is reduced;

A very tired, sick or injured person can take extra steps to the sides, which is why the line of movement turns out to be winding;

If a person is lame, then the steps of a healthy leg may be noticeably larger than a sick one; in addition, the trace of a sore leg is less clear;

The absence of pronounced signs of a rear shock and a short step indicate the slowness and caution of the walker;

The imprint of the soles of a standing person is more deeply depressed in the region of the heels.

Direction of movement of people

The greatest depth of the trace is in that part of it that is turned in the direction of movement;

Ground shift occurs from the front of the track in the direction opposite to the direction of movement;

The sharp ends of the drops falling from the shoes are directed in the direction of movement;

In viscous soil, vertical furrows or scratches are formed on the walls of the track, curved with their upper ends in the direction of movement;

Traces of frozen mud on the crust are surrounded by cracks, the sharp ends of which are directed in the direction of movement;

Separate small lumps of soil are thrown out when walking forward;

At tracks in sand or snow, if the foot sinks deep, a small roll of soil forms on the side that is turned against the direction of movement;

The trampled grass is directed in the direction of movement.

Direction of traffic determined by the following features:

The vertices of the corners in the track of the tread of the off-road tire are turned in the direction opposite to the direction of movement;

Drops of liquid or oil that have fallen in the direction of movement, with elongated thin ends point in the direction of movement;

Soil particles are thrown by wheels and caterpillars in the direction opposite to the direction of movement;

Grass and shrubs are crushed in the direction of travel;

Water or liquid mud, when moving through puddles, ditches, swamps, is sprayed to the sides and forward, and a wet trail remains in the direction of movement;

The end of a broken stick at the fracture site is usually directed in the direction opposite to the movement;

The trail of the braking distance grows gradually and abruptly ends on the side where the car was going;

When leaving a dirt road on a highway, especially when the ground is wet, soil particles remain on the asphalt, indicating the direction of movement.

Age of traces. In winter, fresh tracks are clearly visible. On loose snow on the sides of a fresh track, small lumps of snow are clearly visible. In frost, they quickly disappear, while larger lumps round out and decrease in size. A fresh trace crumbles if you carefully pry it off with your hand, the old one retains its shape. On old tracks low temperatures air, a crust forms.

In dry, calm weather, traces left on sand or soft ground are very clear, clearly visible, and therefore it is not difficult to determine their age, but with the slightest wind they quickly collapse and after 2-3 hours become almost invisible, and then disappear altogether. In strong winds, the tracks may disappear within a few minutes. Traces of equipment in such conditions can last up to 4 hours or even more, but the pattern of prints is also erased quickly.

It is much easier to determine the age of a trace left on wet soil. Such a trace usually undergoes slow changes and retains its contours for a long time. In depressions on wet ground, the soil looks somewhat darker than the surrounding ground, as it retains moisture longer. Lumps of soil that have fallen to the bottom of the track dry out after 3–4 hours, brighten and differ markedly in color from the bottom of the track. If the soil is viscous, then after 2–3 hours (depending on temperature conditions) a crust forms at the bottom of the track, after 4–5 hours cracks appear, after 1–2 days individual soil particles separate from the bottom of the track and swell, and after 2– 3 days the contours of the trace first crumble, and then completely disappear.

Hazardous weather phenomena

Dried feather grass can be used to predict the weather. It sensitively reacts to all changes in the atmosphere: in dry, clear weather, its panicle twists into a spiral, and when the air humidity increases, it straightens.

Homemade barometer. To do this, you need to cut off a branch of a young spruce or juniper with a piece of trunk 10-15 cm long and peel it from the bark. The trunk is fixed motionless, the branch remains free. The branch will respond to changes in the weather by lowering the end before rain and raising it before the onset of clear weather (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. homemade barometer

The amplitude depends on the length of the branch: for example, for a 30–40 cm branch, it can reach 10–15 cm. like a normal barometer.

If there is a danger of falling into the epicenter of a thunderstorm, it is necessary to take, if possible, a dry or slightly wet place 1.5–2 m from rocks or stand-alone trees that rise 10 m or more.

Most often, lightning strikes isolated trees, in the forest - higher, such as oaks, poplars, spruces and pines, a little less often - willows, beeches, lindens, acacias and birches, almost does not touch maples, hazel, laurel trees.

During a thunderstorm, you can not hide in the niches of rocks, slope depressions, be at the entrance or at the far end of the cave. It is dangerous to be on the edges and large clearings. It is extremely dangerous to move or stop in places where water flows.

In open areas, sandy areas, scree and moraines should be chosen; the most dangerous are water-saturated soils and clay soils. You can not be located in the immediate vicinity of the fire.

During a thunderstorm, you must:

The group on the way to disperse, if necessary, continue to move - go one at a time, slowly;

In the forest, hide among low trees with dense crowns;

In the mountains, stay no closer than 3–8 m from vertical walls;

Fold all metal objects, including watches and equipment, 10–15 m away from you;

In open areas, descend from hills and hide in a dry pit, ditch, ravine;

Try to create a dielectric layer by placing branches, spruce branches, stones, logs or clothes under you;

It is best to sit grouped, bending your back and lowering your head to your knees, bring your feet together;

In shelter, change into dry clothes, in extreme cases, carefully squeeze out wet ones;

On the water - remove the mast or flood it through the keel or oar, and in a boat without a mast, remove the oars from the water and sit still; swim slowly, without swinging your arms.

During a thunderstorm it is forbidden:

Take cover near the lone or (in the forest) the tallest trees;

Leaning or touching rocks, sheer walls and trees;

Stop at the edges of the forest, large glades, hills;

Walk or stop near bodies of water or in places where water flows (crevices, streams, couloirs);

Hide under rocky canopies and in small structures;

Move in a tight group, run, fuss;

Wear wet clothes and shoes.

Actions in case of a forest fire caused by lightning activity:

Remove all synthetic clothing;

Wet exposed areas of the body and natural clothing with water or mud;

When smoking, cover your face with a wet cloth;

Move quickly towards scorched earth or burn the area before the main fire approaches;

If it is necessary to cross the line of fire, choose a place with the least amount of vegetation.

Hurricane, tornado, storm

In case of a hurricane, tornado, storm, you must:

Take shelter as soon as possible in places protected from the wind - behind monolithic obstacles, in a dense forest;

Move away from isolated trees that can be blown down by the wind;

Find any depression in the soil - a ravine, ditch, pit, etc., lie down on the bottom, press firmly against the ground, covering your head with your hands;

Fasten loose clothing with all buttons and tie around the body in several places so that it does not create additional windage.

When a blizzard approaches, you need to build the most durable shelter as quickly as possible.

With a sufficient thickness of the snow cover, it is desirable to build a low igloo (see p. 204, fig. 5.19), the domed shape of which provides minimal wind resistance. In front of the igloo, you can additionally build a windproof wall in the shape of a horseshoe, open to the leeward side.

In an open, snowless area where it is not possible to build a major snow shelter, you should find some kind of stable object, such as a fallen tree, take cover behind it and regularly discard and trample the arriving snow mass with your feet. Thus, you will gradually get a narrow shelter trench.

In critical situations, it is permissible to burrow completely into dry snow, for which you need to put on all warm clothes, sit with your back to the wind, cover yourself with plastic wrap or a sleeping bag, pick up a long stick and let the snow sweep you. At the same time, it is necessary to constantly clear the ventilation hole with a stick and expand the volume of the formed snow capsule in order to always be able to get out of the snow drift.

For a blizzard, you need:

Stop driving immediately;

Leave hills and funnel-shaped depressions;

Build a safe shelter in an avalanche safe place;

Warm up as much as possible, fasten clothes, put on a hood;

Leave the shelter only with a rope belay;

Have a tool in the shelter to dig out the entrance.

During a blizzard it is forbidden:

Wait it out without building a shelter;

Move;

Sleep with insufficient thermal insulation properties of clothing;

Leaving shelters without a rope belay.

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Yakutsk 2014

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

FGAOU VPO "North-Eastern federal university named after M.K. Ammosov"

Mining Institute

Department of "Protection in emergency situations"

COURSE WORK

on the topic: "The basics of survival of rescuers in extreme situations"

Completed by: student gr.PB-11

Dmitriev A.G.

Checked: Tarsky V.V.

Introduction

1.4 Special Signals

1.6 Organization of the bivouac

1.8 Obtaining food and water

lifeguard survival rescue disease

Introduction

Survival is active, expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. It is for people whose lives are constantly fraught with dangers that preliminary preparation, both physical and psychological, is very important. Rescuers must necessarily go through, beforehand, a complete process of adaptation, as a result of which the body gradually acquires, previously absent, resistance to certain environmental factors. Thus, it gets the opportunity to "live in conditions previously incompatible with life," which means complete adaptation to the conditions of the polar cold, hot deserts or lack of oxygen at mountain heights, fresh water in the salty sea. People who have undergone full adaptation have a chance not only to save life itself, but also to solve problems that were previously unsolvable.

An extreme situation is an event (or a sequence of events) in which a person, through his own preparedness, the use of equipment and gear, as well as the involvement of additional, pre-prepared resources, has the opportunity to prevent an emergency, and, if necessary, help himself and others after an emergency.

1. Actions of rescuers in extreme conditions

1.1 Aims and tasks of rescuers in terms of survival

The goal of training rescuers for survival is to develop in them stable skills for actions in various conditions of the situation, to develop high moral and business qualities, self-confidence, reliability of rescue equipment and equipment, and the effectiveness of search and rescue support.

The basis of survival is solid knowledge in various fields, from astronomy and medicine to the recipe for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

Survival techniques in each climatic and geographical region are different. What can and should be done in the taiga is unacceptable in the desert and vice versa.

A person must know how to navigate without a compass, give a distress signal, go to a settlement, get food with the help of gathering, hunting, fishing (including without a gun and the necessary gear), provide himself with water, be able to protect himself from natural disasters and much more. other.

The practical development of survival skills is extremely important. It is necessary not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it. When the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning. Prior to high-risk trips, it is necessary to conduct several emergency field exercises that are as close as possible to the real situation of future routes. It is necessary to calculate in advance theoretically and, if possible, check almost all possible emergencies.

The main tasks of training rescuers for survival are to provide the necessary amount of theoretical knowledge and teach practical skills for:

Orientation on the ground in various physical and geographical conditions;

Providing self- and mutual assistance;

The construction of temporary shelters and the use of improvised means of protection from the effects of adverse environmental factors;

Obtaining food and water;

Use of means of communication and signaling for the withdrawal of additional forces and means to the area of ​​search and rescue operations;

Organization of crossings through water barriers and swamps;

Use of rescue boats;

Preparation of sites for landing helicopters;

Evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

1.2 Factors affecting survival

Training in survival actions is the main factor determining the favorable outcome of autonomous existence.

Risk factors:

1. Climate. Adverse weather conditions: cold, heat, strong wind, rain, snow can reduce the limit of human survival many times over.

2. Thirst. Lack of water entails physical and mental suffering, general overheating of the body, rapidly developing heat and sunstroke, dehydration in the desert - inevitable death.

3. Hunger. Prolonged lack of food depresses a person morally, weakens physically, increases the impact on the body of adverse environmental factors.

4. Fear. Reduces the body's resistance to thirst, hunger, climatic factors, leads to the adoption of erroneous decisions, provokes panic, mental breakdowns.

5. Overwork. It appears as a result of strenuous physical activities, insufficient food supply, difficult climatic and geographical conditions, due to the lack of proper rest.

6. Natural disasters: hurricanes, tornadoes, snowstorms, sandstorms, fires, avalanches, mudflows, floods, thunderstorms.

7. Diseases. The greatest threat is posed by injuries, diseases associated with exposure to climatic conditions, and poisoning. But we should not forget that in an emergency, any neglected callus or microtrauma can lead to a tragic outcome.

Survival Factors

Will to live. With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. Bounces off a falling tree, clings to stationary objects when falling. Another thing is long-term survival. Sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical, mental stress and the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. You can call it the will to live. Any skill and knowledge becomes meaningless if a person resigns himself to fate. Long-term survival is ensured not by the spontaneous desire "I do not want to die", but by the goal - "I must survive." The desire to survive is not an instinct, but a conscious necessity. Survival tool - various standard and homemade emergency kits and emergency supplies (for example, a survival knife).

If you are going on a dangerous journey, you need to complete emergency kits in advance, based on the specific conditions of the trip, terrain, time of year, and the number of participants. All items must be tested in practice, repeatedly checked, duplicated if necessary. General physical preparation does not require comments. Psychological preparation consists of the sum of such concepts as the psychological balance of each member of the group, the psychological compatibility of the participants, the similarity of the group, the real idea of ​​the conditions of the future route, training trips that are close in terms of loads and climatic and geographical conditions to the real upcoming ones (or better, twice exceeding them).

Of no small importance is the correct organization of rescue work in a group, a clear distribution of duties in marching and emergency modes. Everyone should know what to do in the event of a threat of an emergency.

Naturally, the above list is far from exhausting all the factors that ensure long-term survival. Once in an emergency, first of all, it is necessary to decide what tactics should be followed - active (independent exit to people) or passive (waiting for help). In passive survival, when there is absolute certainty that the missing person or group is being sought, that the rescuers know their whereabouts, and if there is a non-transportable victim among you, you must immediately begin to build a capital camp, install emergency signals around the camp, provide food on the spot.

1.3 Life support. Assessing the situation and making an informed decision

How to behave in extreme cases? Let's start with the basics and remember the key word for this situation "SURVIVAL":

S - assess the situation, recognize dangers, look for ways out of a hopeless situation.

U - excessive haste harms, but make decisions quickly.

R - remember where you are, determine your location.

V - conquer fear and panic, constantly control yourself, be persistent, but if necessary - obey.

I - improvise, be creative.

V - cherish the means of existence, recognize the limits of your capabilities.

A - act like a local, know how to evaluate people.

L - learn to do everything yourself, be independent and independent.

A group of people. First of all, it is necessary to choose an elder, a person who knows and is able to take all the necessary measures aimed at survival. If your group takes the following tips into account, then the chances of being rescued and returning home will increase significantly. Should:

Decisions are made only by the senior group, regardless of the situation;

Follow the orders of the senior group only;

To develop a sense of mutual assistance in the group.

All this will help to organize the activities of the group so that the best way ensure survival.

First of all, it is necessary to assess the current situation, which in turn consists of an assessment of the factors affecting survival.

1. health status of group members, physical and mental state;

2. the impact of the external environment (air temperature and the state of atmospheric conditions in general, terrain, vegetation, the presence and proximity of water sources, etc.).

3. availability of emergency supplies of food, water and emergency equipment.

Provide self- and mutual assistance (if necessary) and draw up an action plan based on specific conditions, which should include:

1. carrying out orientation on the ground and determining your location;

2. organization of a temporary camp. Choosing a suitable place for building a shelter, taking into account the relief, vegetation, water sources, etc. Determination of the place of cooking, food storage, placement of a latrine, location of signal fires;

3. provision of communications and signaling, preparation of radio facilities, operation and maintenance of them;

4. distribution of responsibilities among group members;

5. establishment of duty, tasks of duty officers and determination of the order of duty;

6. preparation of means of visual signaling;

As a result, an optimal mode of behavior in the current situation should be developed.

1.4 Special signals

Rescuers must know and be able to put into practice special signals. Rescuers can use bonfire smoke during the day to indicate their own location. bright light at night. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into a fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To get white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

To give a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft), a special signal mirror can be used (Fig. 1). It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane; turning the mirror, match the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

Rice. 1 Special signal mirror

At night, the light of a hand-held electric flashlight, a torch, a fire can be used for signaling.

A fire built on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good means of signaling are brightly colored objects and a special coloring powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, earth, water, ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal rockets, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest developments in target designation is a small rubber balloon with a nylon shell, covered with four luminous colors, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90 m by a nylon cable. The mass of the kit is 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to use the International Code Table of Air Signals "Ground - Air" (Fig. 2). Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie down on the ground, snow, ice, trampled on the snow.

Rice. 2 International Code Table for Airborne Ground-to-Air Signals

1 - Need a doctor - serious bodily injury;

2 - Medicines are needed;

3 - Unable to move;

4 - Need food and water;

5 - Requires weapons and ammunition,

6 - Map and compass required:

7 - We need a signal lamp with a battery and a radio station;

8 - Specify the direction of travel;

9 - I am moving in this direction;

10 - Let's try to take off;

11 - Vessel seriously damaged;

12 - Here you can safely land;

13 - Fuel and oil required;

14 - All right;

15 - No or negative;

16 - Yes or positive;

17 - Did not understand;

18 - Need a mechanic;

19 - Operations completed;

20 - Nothing found, keep searching;

21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction;

22 - We found all the people;

23 - We only found a few people:

24 - We are unable to continue, returning to base;

25 - Divided into two groups, each follows the indicated direction.

1.5 Determination of weather conditions

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors. Monitoring the state and forecasting of the weather is carried out by special meteorological services. Weather information is transmitted by means of communication, in special reports, is applied to maps using conventional signs.

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict it according to local characteristics. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.

Signs of persistent good weather :

1. It is quiet at night, during the day the wind intensifies, and in the evening it calms down;

2. The direction of the wind near the ground coincides with the direction of movement of the clouds;

3. At sunset, the dawn is yellow, golden or pink with a greenish tint in the distant space;

4. At night, fog accumulates in the lowlands;

5. After sunset, dew appears on the grass, with sunrise it disappears.

6. In the mountains, haze covers the peaks;

7. Cloudless at night, clouds appear in the morning, increase by noon and disappear by evening;

8. Ants do not close the passages in the anthill;

9. Hot during the day, cool in the evening.

Signs of approaching storm :

1. The wind intensifies, becomes more even, blows with the same force both day and night, sharply changes direction;

2. Cloudiness intensifies. Cumulus clouds do not disappear by evening, but are added;

3. Evening and morning dawns are red;

4. In the evening it seems warmer than during the day. In the mountains, the temperature drops in the morning;

5. There is no dew at night or it is very weak;

6. Fog appears near the ground after sunset, by sunrise it dissipates;

7. During the day, the sky becomes cloudy, becomes whitish;

8. Crowns around the Moon decrease;

9. The stars twinkle strongly;

10. Hens and sparrows bathe in dust;

11. Smoke begins to creep along the ground.

Signs of persistent bad weather :

1. Fine continuous rain ;

2. Fog, dew near the ground;

3. Both at night and during the day it is moderately warm;

4. Dampness in the air day and night, even in the absence of rain;

5. Small crowns closely adjacent to the Moon;

6. Stars shimmer with red or bluish light;

7. Ants close the passages;

8. Bees do not leave the hive;

9. Crows scream heart-rendingly;

10. Small birds clog in the middle of the tree crown.

Signs that the weather is changing for the better

1. The rain stops or comes intermittently, in the evening a creeping fog appears, dew falls;

2. The difference between day and night temperatures increases;

3. Sharply cold;

4. The air becomes drier;

5. The sky in the gaps is clear;

6. The crowns around the Moon increase;

7. The twinkling of stars decreases;

8. The evening dawn is yellow;

9. The smoke from the chimneys and from the fire rises vertically;

10. The bees in the hives are noisy. Swifts and swallows rise higher;

11. Mosquitoes swarm;

12. The coals in the fire are quickly covered with ash;

Signs of stable partly cloudy weather

1. The predominance of the north or northeast wind;

2. The wind speed is small;

3. Creeping fog at night;

4. Abundant frost on grass land or tree branches;

5. Rainbow pillars on the sides of the Sun or a reddish pillar across the solar disk.

6. Sunset with a yellowish tint;

Signs of a change to cloudy, snowy weather

1. Change in wind direction to the southeast, then to the southwest;

2. Wind change from south to north and its strengthening - to a snowstorm;

3. Increased cloudiness;

4. Light snow begins;

5. The frost is weakening;

6. Blue spots appear over the forest;

7. Dark forests are reflected in low dense clouds.

Signs of persistent cloudy, snowy weather without major frosts

1. Slight frost or, with a southwesterly wind, a thaw;

2. By the thaw, blue spots over the forest intensify;

3. Steady southeast or northeast wind;

5. Light continuous snow;

Signs of a change to frosty weather without precipitation

1. The wind from the southwest turns to the west or northwest, the frost intensifies;

2. Cloudiness decreases;

3. Frost appears on the grass land and trees;

4. Blue spots over the forest weaken and soon completely disappear.

1.6 Organization of the bivouac

The weather imposes certain requirements on the organization of a bivouac, temporary housing, life and rest during multi-day search and rescue operations. With this in mind, rescuers organize a bivouac. It should be located in avalanche-safe and rock-fall-safe areas, close to a source of drinking water, have a supply of deadwood or firewood. It is impossible to arrange a bivouac in the dried up beds of mountain rivers, near the shallows, in dense shrubs, coniferous thickets, near dry, hollow, rotten trees, in thickets of flowering rhododendron. After removing stones, branches, debris from the site and leveling it, rescuers can proceed with setting up the tent. (Fig. 3)

Tents differ in design features, capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect a person from cold, rain, wind, dampness, and insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

1. unfold the tent;

2.stretch and fix the bottom;

3. install racks and tighten guy wires;

4. fasten the exit and tighten the roof braces;

5. eliminate folds on the roof by tightening (loosening) the braces;

6. dig a ditch around the tent 8-10 cm wide and deep to drain water in case of rain.

Under the bottom of the tent, you can put dry leaves, grass, ferns, reeds, moss. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, and foam rubber should be placed on the floor.

The pegs are hammered at an angle of 45° to the ground to a depth of 20-25 cm. Trees, stones, ledges can be used to secure the tent. The back wall of the tent must be placed in the direction of the prevailing winds.

In the absence of a tent, you can spend the night under a piece of tarpaulin, polyethylene, or equip a hut from improvised materials (branches, logs, spruce branches, leaves, reeds). It is installed on a flat and dry place, in a clearing or the edge of a forest.

Rice. 3 Options for setting up tents

In snowy winter conditions, rescuers must be able to arrange shelters in the snow. The simplest of them is a hole dug around a tree, the size of which depends on the number of people. From above, the pit must be closed with branches, dense cloth, covered with snow for better thermal insulation. You can build a snow cave, a snow dugout, a snow trench. When entering a snow shelter, you should clean your clothes from snow and dirt, take a shovel or knife with you, which can be used to make ventilation holes and a passage in case of snow collapse.

1.7 Use of a fire as a means of escape

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "nodya", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "star", " pyramid".

"Shalash" is convenient for making tea quickly and lighting the camp. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot.

“Well” (“log house”) is kindled, if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes.

In the "well" the fuel burns out more slowly than in the "hut"; a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature.

On the "taiga" you can cook food at the same time in several pots. On one thick log (approximately 20 cm thick), several thinner dry logs are placed, which approach each other at an angle of 30 °. necessarily on the leeward side. Fuel burns for a long time. Near such a fire you can stay for the night.

"Nodya" is good for cooking food, heating during the night, drying clothes and shoes. Two dry logs up to 3 m long are placed close to each other, flammable fuel (thin dry twigs, birch bark) is ignited in the gap between them, after which a third dry log of the same length and 20-25 cm thick is placed on top. To prevent the logs from rolling, with flyers are driven into the ground on two sides of them. They will simultaneously serve as supports for the stick on which the bowlers are hung. The “nodya” flares up slowly, but it burns with an even flame for several hours. Any fire must be made only after careful preparation of the site: collection of dry grass and deadwood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing with stones the place where it will be bred. The fuel for the fire is dry forest, grass, reeds, shrubs. It has been noticed that burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch give a lot of sparks. Quietly burning oak, maple, elm, beech.

To quickly kindle a fire, kindling is needed (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel). It fits tightly with a "hut" or "well". To make the kindling light up better, put a piece of candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood.

In wet weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, or a thick cloth. You can kindle a fire with matches, a lighter, sunlight and a magnifying glass, friction, flint, a shot. In the latter case, you need:

1. open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;

2. lay dry cotton wool on top of the gunpowder;

3. shoot at the ground, while observing security measures;

4. smoldering cotton wool will provide a fire.

To set up a fire in winter, it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a deck of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire.

To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it should not be made under low-lying tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reeds and reeds, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine undergrowth. In these places, the fire spreads at high speed and is difficult to extinguish.

In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones. The safe distance from the fire to the tent is 10m. To dry clothes, shoes, equipment near the fire, they should be hung on poles or ropes located on the leeward side at a sufficient distance from the fire. An obligatory rule is to extinguish the fire (with water, earth, snow) when leaving the bivouac.

1.8 Obtaining food and water

A person who finds himself in conditions of autonomous existence must take the most energetic measures to provide himself with food by collecting edible wild plants, fishing, hunting, i.e. use everything that nature gives.

Over 2,000 plants grow on the territory of our country, partially or completely suitable for food.

When collecting plant gifts, care must be taken. About 2% of plants can cause severe and even fatal poisoning. To prevent poisoning, it is necessary to distinguish between such poisonous plants as the crow's eye, wolf's bast, poisonous milestone (hemlock), bitter henbane, etc. food poisoning cause poisonous substances contained in some mushrooms: pale grebe, fly agaric, false honey agaric, false chanterelle, etc.

It is better to refrain from eating unfamiliar plants, berries, mushrooms. When forced to use them for food, it is recommended to eat at a time no more than 1 - 2 g of food mass, if possible, drinking plenty of water (vegetable poison contained in such a proportion will not cause serious harm to the body). Wait 1-2 hours. If there are no signs of poisoning (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, intestinal disorders), you can eat an additional 10-15 g. You can eat without restrictions a day later.

An indirect sign of the edibility of a plant can be: fruits pecked by birds; many seeds, scraps of peel at the foot of fruit trees; bird droppings on branches, trunks; plants gnawed by animals; fruits found in nests and burrows. Unfamiliar fruits, bulbs, tubers, etc. it is desirable to boil. Cooking destroys many organic poisons.

In conditions of autonomous existence, fishing is perhaps the most affordable way to provide yourself with food. Fish has a higher energy value than vegetable fruits, and is less labor intensive than hunting.

Fishing tackle can be made from improvised materials: fishing line - from loose shoelaces, thread pulled out of clothes, untwisted rope, hooks - from pins, earrings, hairpins from badges, "invisible", and spinners - from metal and mother-of-pearl buttons, coins and etc.

It is permissible to eat fish meat raw, but it is better to cut it into narrow strips, dry them in the sun, so it will become tastier and last longer. In order to avoid fish poisoning, certain rules must be observed. You can not eat fish covered with thorns, spikes, sharp growths, skin ulcers, fish that are not covered with scales, devoid of lateral fins, having an unusual appearance and bright color, hemorrhages and tumors of internal organs. You can not eat stale fish - with gills covered with mucus, with sunken eyes, flabby skin, with an unpleasant odor, with dirty and easily detached scales, with meat easily lagging behind the bones and especially from the spine. It is better not to eat unfamiliar and dubious fish. You should also not eat fish caviar, milk, liver, because. they are often poisonous.

Hunting is the most preferred, in winter the only way to provide food. But unlike fishing, hunting requires sufficient skill, skills, and a lot of labor from a person.

Small animals and birds are relatively easy to catch. To do this, you can use traps, snares, loops and other devices.

The mined meat of the animal, the birds are fried on a primitive spit. Small animals and birds are roasted on a spit without skinning or plucking. After cooking, the charred skin is removed, and the carcass is cleaned of the inside. It is advisable to burn the meat of larger game after gutting and cleaning over high heat, and then roast it on coals.

Rivers, lakes, streams, swamps, accumulation of water in certain areas of the soil provide people with the necessary amount of liquid for drinking and cooking.

Water from springs and springs, mountain and forest rivers and streams can be drunk raw. But before you quench your thirst with water from stagnant or low-flowing reservoirs, it should be cleaned of impurities and disinfected. For cleaning, it is easy to make the simplest filters from several layers of fabric or from an empty tin can, punching 3-4 small holes in the bottom, and then filling it with sand. You can dig a shallow hole half a meter from the edge of the reservoir, and after a while it will be filled with clean, clear water.

The most reliable method of water disinfection is boiling. In the absence of dishes for boiling, a primitive box made of a piece of birch bark will do, provided that the flame only touches the part that is filled with water. You can boil water by lowering heated stones into a birch bark box with wooden tongs.

1.9 Disease prevention and treatment

In conditions of autonomous existence, when a wide variety of injuries, bruises, burns, poisoning, diseases, etc. are possible, knowledge of self-help techniques is especially necessary, because you have to rely on your own strength.

To protect against mosquitoes, midges need to lubricate open areas of the body with a thin layer of clay. Smoked bonfires are widely used to repel insects. To drive insects out of the hut before going to bed, burning coals are placed on a thick piece of bark, and covered with wet moss on top. The smoke oven is brought into the shelter, kept there until it is filled with smoke, and then it is well ventilated and the entrance is tightly closed. At night, the smoker is left at the entrance on the leeward side so that the smoke, repelling insects, does not penetrate into the shelter.

During the transitions, care must be taken not to step on the snake. In case of an unexpected meeting with a snake, it is necessary to stop, let it crawl away and not pursue it. If the snake is aggressive, immediately apply swipe on the head and then finish her off. When bitten poisonous snake it is necessary to carefully suck out the poison (if there are no cracks in the mouth and lips) and spit it out. Wash the wound and apply a bandage.

In the treatment of diseases, certain plants should be widely used.

Ash bark has an anti-inflammatory effect. To do this, remove the bark from a not very young, but not very old branch and attach the juicy side to the wound. Fresh crushed nettle leaves help well. They promote blood clotting and stimulate tissue healing. For the same purposes, the wound can be sprinkled with greenish-brown pollen of a mature puffball mushroom, tightly clamping the cut with the velvety skin of the same fungus turned inside out.

Fireweed fluff, reeds, linen and hemp tow can be used as cotton wool.

The burning reddish juice of the lungwort can replace iodine. And white moss is used as a dressing with a disinfectant effect. Fresh juice of plantain and wormwood stops bleeding and disinfects wounds, has an analgesic and healing effect. This remedy is also indispensable for severe bruises, sprains, as well as for the bites of wasps and bumblebees. The leaves of plantain and wormwood are crushed and applied to the wound.

Bibliography

1. Accidents and catastrophes. M., Publishing House of the Association of Construction Universities, 1998.

2. Military topography. M., Military Publishing, 1980.

3. Survival. Mn., "Lazurak", 1996.

4. Catastrophes and people. M., "Publishing house AST-LTD", 1997.

5. First aid for injuries and other life-threatening situations. St. Petersburg, DNA Publishing House LLC, 2001.

6. Search and rescue operations. M., EMERCOM of Russia, 2000.

7. Self-rescue without equipment. M., Russian Journal, 2000.

8. Tutorial"Fundamentals of military topography" Svetlaya Grove, IPPC Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus, 2001.

9. http://www.geoenv.ru/science/osipov_paper/osipov_paper-rus.htm.

10. http://www.ecosafe.nw.ru/Danger/mainDang.htm.

11. www.bgd-ru.ru.

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The basics of survival must be known not only to a reasonable man, but to all people without exception, regardless of status. There are a lot of situations as a result of which a person can be left alone with nature. You can simply get lost in the forest while picking mushrooms, you can fall behind a tourist group, you can survive after a plane or car accident, and so on…

Basics of survival: where to start?

The conditions in which a casual tourist may find himself may be very different. Therefore, the algorithm of actions and the method of survival in each case are unique. Much will depend on air temperature, precipitation, the presence or absence of shelter and water sources, landscape, and the number of people. Plus many other factors that make things easier, or vice versa, aggravate the situation.

Based on all this, the survivors will have to build and, possibly, correct actions for the most reasonable survival in each individual situation. The fundamentals of this harsh science are vitally important to observe, regardless of the influencing factors and threats.

Briefly about threatening factors

• Thirst . It must be remembered that a person without water will last no more than three days. Thus, the extraction of water always becomes one of the primary tasks.
• Temperature . Whether it is cold or heat, in any case, they can lead to negative consequences in the body. Heatstroke, hypothermia, etc.
• mental problems(loneliness, sadness, fear). They can be detrimental to the individual if they develop into a severe form (panic, apathy, hysteria).
• Hunger . At first, the lack of food does not have a strong negative effect. But, according to the basics of survival, after a week or so, exhaustion of the body can become a serious threat.
• Injury and pain . Received injuries or diseases significantly reduce the chances of survivors for a successful outcome.
• Aggressive environment . It includes all sorts of nuances of the situation: wild animals, poisonous plants, swamps and other delights of the habitat.
• Overwork . Excessive fatigue and physical exhaustion will sooner or later play a cruel joke on any person.

Based on these factors, the survivor needs to build for himself in his head survival plan. Whatever the reason for the victim remaining cut off from civilization - in the first place, he should always try to determine his location. The ideal option would be to have a map and a compass, which is unlikely in case of a sudden emergency.

If there are natural shelters nearby or broken vehicles, a crashed plane, and so on, then the victim is advised to stay in this place. It is worth moving on only in 2 cases:

1) the missing person will not be searched for in the near future;

2) the missing person knows exactly how to get to the settlement or camp.

If it is impossible to determine your location on the ground, you need to look around from the most convenient and high point (hill, tree). Having found signs of civilization or a reservoir, one should advance towards the goal.

If the terrain is too homogeneous around, then it is better to stay put and start other ways of surviving. First you need to understand what is more profitable to do first. If sunset is coming soon, then you should start building a shelter. At low temperatures, it makes sense to start your actions with a fire. If this is the case in the morning and in the summer, then you can deal with the provision of water (search, cleaning, disinfection). Each action must be logical and consistent.

Universal Survival Plan

It is necessary to understand that, by and large, in conditions of a threat to life, nothing universal can exist. However, there are some fundamental truths.

The elements of survival include the following concepts: food, shelter, fire, water, location and medicine. To prioritize them, a certain abbreviation with a speaking name is used: PLAN. No matter where in the world the survivor is, the priority is the same - whether it is the Gobi desert, the Amazon jungle, Pacific Ocean or the expanses of the Arctic.

P - protection (protection)

It is in the interests of a person in distress to provide their own protection from an aggressive environment. To do this, you need to use all the means at hand, but without the need to do "extra movements". You must always remember the expediency of efforts. Preference should be given to organizing shelter and making fire.

L - localization (location)

Next on the list of priorities will be locating and equipping distress signals. The survivor must by all means attract attention and indicate his presence.

A - adaptation (provision)

While waiting for help, you should constantly look for new sources of food and water, emergency supplies should be used only when absolutely necessary. This way of survival can be described as follows: "preserve and increase."

N - navigation (route)

If you hope for someone long and pointless, you can try the last option. In order to move forward, you need to accumulate a sufficient amount of resources and supplies. A person who dares to take such a step needs to correctly assess his strength and make an informed decision, otherwise this campaign may be the last.

In addition to the above, you must be extremely attentive to your own health and constantly monitor your well-being. Wounds must be treated without delay, preventing infection and inflammation. Purified and boiled water is the key to success.

Additional materials

The basic ways of survival that you need to take at the very beginning of "unity" with nature remain unchanged. Only their order changes depending on the accompanying factors. Each of the aspects of life in the wild has its own nuances and features that deserve separate materials and articles.

A quite natural question arises: what topics should be mastered first of all, starting to study the basics of survival?

You need to start with a clear understanding that any autonomous existence is made up of individual elements, skills, factors. Due to the vastness, at the initial stage, the following free materials are recommended for reading:

After studying these articles, it is advisable to proceed to more specific ways of survival, the necessary skills and abilities. Books in this regard are an indispensable source of knowledge.

When conducting RPS, rescuers often have to perform tasks far from populated areas, spend several days in "field conditions", and face a variety of extreme situations which imposes additional requirements on their ability to work in these conditions.

Solid knowledge in various fields, the ability to use them in any conditions are the basis of survival. Going to the RPS, rescuers must, along with tools and protective equipment, have the following set of necessary items that can be useful in any climatic and geographical zone: a signal mirror, with which you can send a distress signal at a distance of up to 30-40 km; hunting matches, a candle or tablets of dry fuel for making a fire or heating a shelter; whistle for signaling; a large knife (machete) in a sheath, which can be used as a knife, ax, shovel, spear; a compass, a piece of thick foil and polyethylene, fishing equipment, signal cartridges, an emergency kit of medicines, a supply of water and food.

Signaling. Rescuers must know and be able to put into practice special signals.

Rescuers can use fire smoke during the day and bright lights at night to indicate their location. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into a fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To get white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

To give a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft), a special signal mirror can be used. It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane; turning the mirror, match the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to do in. hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

At night, the light of a hand-held electric flashlight, a torch, a fire can be used for signaling.

A fire built on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good means of signaling are brightly colored objects and a special coloring powder (fluorescein, uranin). which are scattered on snow, earth, water, ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal rockets, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest achievements in the development of "target designation" is a small rubber balloon with a nylon shell, covered with four luminous colors, under which a light flashes at night, the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held on height of 90 m with a nylon cable Weight of the set is 1.5 kg

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to use the International Ground-Air Air Signals Code Table. Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees) directly by people who must lie on the ground, snow, ice, trampled on the snow

1 - "Doctor Needed - Serious Bodily Injuries"

2 - "Need medicines

3 - "Unable to move

4 - "Need food and water

5 - "Requires weapons and ammunition"

6 - Map and compass required

7 - "Need signal light with battery and radio station"

8 - "Indicate the direction of travel

9 - "I'm moving in this direction

10 - "Let's try to take off"

11 - "The ship is seriously damaged

12 - "It's safe to land here"

13 - Fuel and oil required"

14 - "It's okay

15- "No or negative

16- "Yes or Positive"

17- "Not understood"

18 - Need a mechanic"

19 - "Operations completed"

20- "Nothing found, keep looking.

21 - "Information received that the aircraft is in this direction

22 - "We found all the people

23 - "We only found a few people

24 - "We are unable to continue returning to base"

25 - "Split into two groups, each follows the indicated direction"

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors Monitoring the state and forecasting of the weather is carried out by special meteorological services Weather information is transmitted via communications in special reports, applied to maps using conventional signs

Rice__ Conventions accepted in meteorology

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict it according to local characteristics. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.