The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually in Stockholm (Sweden), as well as in Oslo (Norway). They are considered the most prestigious international awards. They were founded by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish inventor, linguist, industrial magnate, humanist and philosopher. It has gone down in history as (which was patented in 1867) playing a major role in the industrial development of our planet. The drafted will stated that all his savings would form a fund, the purpose of which was to award prizes to those who managed to bring the greatest benefit to humanity.

Nobel Prize

Today, prizes are awarded in the fields of chemistry, physics, medicine, and literature. The Peace Prize is also awarded.

Russia's Nobel laureates in literature, physics and economics will be presented in our article. You will get acquainted with their biographies, discoveries, and achievements.

The price of the Nobel Prize is high. In 2010, its size was approximately $1.5 million.

The Nobel Foundation was founded in 1890.

Russian Nobel Prize laureates

Our country can be proud of the names that have glorified it in the fields of physics, literature, and economics. The Nobel laureates of Russia and the USSR in these fields are as follows:

• Bunin I.A. (literature) - 1933.
• Cherenkov P. A., Frank I. M. and Tamm I. E. (physics) - 1958.
• Pasternak B. L. (literature) - 1958.
• Landau L.D. (physics) - 1962.
• Basov N. G. and Prokhorov A. M. (physics) - 1964.
• Sholokhov M. A. (literature) - 1965.
• Solzhenitsyn A.I. (literature) - 1970.
• Kantorovich L.V. (economics) - 1975.
• Kapitsa P. L. (physics) - 1978.
• Brodsky I. A. (literature) - 1987.
• Alferov Zh. I. (physics) - 2000.
• Abrikosov A. A. and L. (physics) - 2003;
• Game Andre and Novoselov Konstantin (physics) - 2010.

The list, we hope, will be continued in subsequent years. The Nobel laureates of Russia and the USSR, whose names we cited above, were not fully represented, but only in such areas as physics, literature and economics. In addition, figures from our country also distinguished themselves in medicine, physiology, chemistry, and also received two Peace Prizes. But we'll talk about them another time.

Nobel laureates in physics

Many physicists from our country have been awarded this prestigious prize. Let's tell you more about some of them.

Tamm Igor Evgenievich

Tamm Igor Evgenievich (1895-1971) was born in Vladivostok. He was the son of a civil engineer. For a year he studied in Scotland at the University of Edinburgh, but then returned to his homeland and graduated from the Faculty of Physics of Moscow State University in 1918. The future scientist went to the front in the First World War, where he served as a brother of mercy. In 1933, he defended his doctoral dissertation, and a year later, in 1934, he became a research fellow at the Institute of Physics. Lebedeva. This scientist worked in areas of science that were little explored. Thus, he studied relativistic (that is, related to the famous theory of relativity proposed by Albert Einstein) quantum mechanics, as well as the theory of the atomic nucleus. At the end of the 30s, together with I.M. Frank, he managed to explain the Cherenkov-Vavilov effect - the blue glow of a liquid that occurs under the influence of gamma radiation. It was for this research that he later received the Nobel Prize. But Igor Evgenievich himself considered his main achievements in science to be his work on the study of elementary particles and the atomic nucleus.

Davidovich

Landau Lev Davidovich (1908-1968) was born in Baku. His father worked as an oil engineer. At the age of thirteen, the future scientist graduated from technical school with honors, and at nineteen, in 1927, he became a graduate of Leningrad University. Lev Davidovich continued his education abroad as one of the most gifted graduate students on a People's Commissar's permit. Here he took part in seminars conducted by the best European physicists - Paul Dirac and Max Born. Upon returning home, Landau continued his studies. At the age of 26 he achieved the degree of Doctor of Science, and a year later he became a professor. Together with Evgeniy Mikhailovich Lifshits, one of his students, he developed a course for graduate and undergraduate students in theoretical physics. P. L. Kapitsa invited Lev Davidovich to work at his institute in 1937, but a few months later the scientist was arrested on a false denunciation. He spent a whole year in prison without hope of salvation, and only Kapitsa’s appeal to Stalin saved his life: Landau was released.

The talent of this scientist was multifaceted. He explained the phenomenon of fluidity, created his theory of quantum liquid, and also studied the oscillations of electron plasma.

Mikhailovich

Prokhorov Alexander Mikhailovich and Gennadievich, Russian Nobel laureates in the field of physics, received this prestigious prize for the invention of the laser.

Prokhorov was born in Australia in 1916, where his parents lived since 1911. They were exiled to Siberia by the tsarist government and then fled abroad. In 1923, the entire family of the future scientist returned to the USSR. Alexander Mikhailovich graduated with honors from the Faculty of Physics of Leningrad University and worked since 1939 at the Institute. Lebedeva. His scientific achievements are related to radiophysics. The scientist became interested in radio spectroscopy in 1950 and, together with Nikolai Gennadievich Basov, developed so-called masers - molecular generators. Thanks to this invention, they found a way to create concentrated radio emission. Charles Townes, an American physicist, also conducted similar research independently of his Soviet colleagues, so the committee members decided to divide this prize between him and Soviet scientists.

Kapitsa Petr Leonidovich

Let's continue the list of "Russian Nobel laureates in physics." (1894-1984) was born in Kronstadt. His father was a military man, a lieutenant general, and his mother was a folklore collector and a famous teacher. P.L. Kapitsa graduated from the institute in St. Petersburg in 1918, where he studied with Ioffe Abram Fedorovich, an outstanding physicist. In conditions of civil war and revolution, it was impossible to do science. Kapitsa's wife, as well as two of his children, died during the typhus epidemic. The scientist moved to England in 1921. Here he worked in the famous Cambridge university center, and his scientific supervisor was Ernest Rutherford, a famous physicist. In 1923, Pyotr Leonidovich became a Doctor of Science, and two years later - one of the members of Trinity College, a privileged association of scientists.

Pyotr Leonidovich was mainly engaged in experimental physics. He was especially interested in low temperature physics. A laboratory was built especially for his research in Great Britain with the help of Rutherford, and by 1934 the scientist created an installation designed to liquefy helium. Pyotr Leonidovich often visited his homeland during these years, and during his visits the leadership of the Soviet Union persuaded the scientist to stay. In 1930-1934, a laboratory was even built especially for him in our country. In the end, he was simply not released from the USSR during his next visit. Therefore, Kapitsa continued his research here, and in 1938 he managed to discover the phenomenon of superfluidity. For this he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.

Game Andre and Novoselov Konstantin

Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, Russian Nobel laureates in physics, received this honorary prize in 2010 for their discovery of graphene. This is a new material that allows you to significantly increase the speed of the Internet. As it turned out, it can capture and convert into electrical energy an amount of light 20 times greater than all previously known materials. This discovery dates back to 2004. This is how the list of “Nobel laureates of Russia of the 21st century” was replenished.

Literature Prizes

Our country has always been famous for its artistic creativity. People with sometimes opposing ideas and views are Russian Nobel laureates in literature. Thus, A.I. Solzhenitsyn and I.A. Bunin were opponents of Soviet power. But M.A. Sholokhov was known as a convinced communist. However, all Russian Nobel Prize laureates were united by one thing - talent. For him they were awarded this prestigious award. “How many Nobel laureates are there in Russia in literature?” you ask. We answer: there are only five of them. Now we will introduce you to some of them.

Pasternak Boris Leonidovich

Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (1890-1960) was born in Moscow into the family of Leonid Osipovich Pasternak, a famous artist. The mother of the future writer, Rosalia Isidorovna, was a talented pianist. Perhaps that is why Boris Leonidovich dreamed of a career as a composer as a child; he even studied music with A. N. Scriabin himself. But his love for poetry won. Poetry brought fame to Boris Leonidovich, and the novel “Doctor Zhivago,” dedicated to the fate of the Russian intelligentsia, doomed him to difficult trials. The fact is that the editors of one literary magazine, to which the author offered his manuscript, considered this work anti-Soviet and refused to publish it. Then Boris Leonidovich transferred his creation abroad, to Italy, where it was published in 1957. Soviet colleagues sharply condemned the publication of the novel in the West, and Boris Leonidovich was expelled from the Writers' Union. But it was this novel that made him a Nobel laureate. Since 1946, the writer and poet were nominated for this prize, but it was awarded only in 1958.

The awarding of this honorary award to such, in the opinion of many, anti-Soviet work in the homeland aroused the indignation of the authorities. As a result, Boris Leonidovich, under the threat of expulsion from the USSR, was forced to refuse to receive the Nobel Prize. Only 30 years later, Evgeny Borisovich, the son of the great writer, received a medal and diploma for his father.

Solzhenitsyn Alexander Isaevich

The fate of Alexander Isaevich Solzhenitsyn was no less dramatic and interesting. He was born in 1918 in the city of Kislovodsk, and the childhood and youth of the future Nobel laureate were spent in Rostov-on-Don and Novocherkassk. After graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Rostov University, Alexander Isaevich was a teacher and at the same time received his education by correspondence in Moscow, at the Literary Institute. After the start of the Great Patriotic War, the future laureate of the most prestigious peace prize went to the front.

Solzhenitsyn was arrested shortly before the end of the war. The reason for this was his critical remarks about Joseph Stalin, found in the writer’s letters by military censorship. Only in 1953, after the death of Joseph Vissarionovich, was he released. The magazine "New World" in 1962 published the first story by this author, entitled "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", which tells about the life of people in the camp. Most of the following literary magazines refused to publish. Their anti-Soviet orientation was cited as the reason. But Alexander Isaevich did not give up. He, like Pasternak, sent his manuscripts abroad, where they were published. In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The writer did not go to the award ceremony in Stockholm, since the Soviet authorities did not allow him to leave the country. Representatives of the Nobel Committee, who were going to present the prize to the laureate in his homeland, were not allowed into the USSR.

As for the future fate of the writer, in 1974 he was expelled from the country. At first he lived in Switzerland, then moved to the USA, where he was awarded the Nobel Prize, much belatedly. Such famous works of his as “The Gulag Archipelago”, “In the First Circle”, “Cancer Ward” were published in the West. Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia in 1994.

These are the Nobel laureates of Russia. Let’s add one more name to the list, which is impossible not to mention.

Sholokhov Mikhail Alexandrovich

Let's tell you about another great Russian writer - Mikhail Alexandrovich Sholokhov. His fate turned out differently than that of the opponents of Soviet power (Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn), since he was supported by the state. Mikhail Alexandrovich (1905-1980) was born on the Don. He later described the village of Veshenskaya, his small homeland, in many works. Mikhail Sholokhov completed only the 4th grade of school. He took an active part in the civil war, leading a subdetachment that took away surplus grain from wealthy Cossacks. The future writer already felt his calling in his youth. In 1922, he arrived in Moscow, and a few months later began publishing his first stories in magazines and newspapers. In 1926, the collections “Azure Steppe” and “Don Stories” appeared. In 1925, work began on the novel "Quiet Don", dedicated to the life of the Cossacks during a turning point (civil war, revolutions, World War I). In 1928, the first part of this work was born, and in the 30s it was completed, becoming the pinnacle of Sholokhov’s work. In 1965, the writer was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Russian Nobel laureates in economics

Our country has shown itself in this area not as large as in literature and physics, where there are many Russian laureates. So far, only one of our compatriots has received a prize in economics. Let's tell you more about it.

Kantorovich Leonid Vitalievich

Russia's Nobel laureates in economics are represented by only one name. Leonid Vitalievich Kantorovich (1912-1986) is the only economist from Russia awarded this prize. The scientist was born into a doctor's family in St. Petersburg. His parents fled to Belarus during the civil war, where they lived for a year. Vitaly Kantorovich, father of Leonid Vitalievich, died in 1922. In 1926, the future scientist entered the aforementioned Leningrad University, where, in addition to natural disciplines, he studied modern history, political economy, and mathematics. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics at the age of 18, in 1930. After this, Kantorovich remained at the university as a teacher. At the age of 22, Leonid Vitalievich already becomes a professor, and a year later - a doctor. In 1938, he was assigned to a plywood factory laboratory as a consultant, where he was tasked with creating a method for allocating various resources to maximize productivity. This is how the foundry programming method was founded. In 1960, the scientist moved to Novosibirsk, where at that time a computer center was created, the most advanced in the country. Here he continued his research. The scientist lived in Novosibirsk until 1971. During this period he received the Lenin Prize. In 1975, he was awarded jointly with T. Koopmans the Nobel Prize, which he received for his contribution to the theory of resource allocation.

These are the main Nobel laureates of Russia. 2014 was marked by the receipt of this prize by Patrick Modiano (literature), Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano, Shuji Nakamura (physics). Jean Tirol received an award in economics. There are no Russian Nobel laureates among them. 2013 also did not bring this honorary prize to our compatriots. All laureates were representatives of other states.

Albert Einstein . Nobel Prize in Physics, 1921

The most famous scientist of the 20th century. and one of the greatest scientists of all time, Einstein enriched physics with his unique power of insight and unsurpassed play of imagination. He sought to find an explanation of nature using a system of equations that would have great beauty and simplicity. He was awarded a prize for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.

Edward Appleton. Nobel Prize in Physics, 1947

Edward Appleton was awarded the prize for his research into the physics of the upper atmosphere, in particular for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer. By measuring the height of the ionosphere, Appleton discovered a second non-conducting layer, the resistance of which allows short-wave radio signals to be reflected. With this discovery, Appleton established the possibility of direct radio broadcasting to the whole world.

Leo ESAKI. Nobel Prize in Physics, 1973

Leo Esaki received the prize together with Ivor Jayever for their experimental discoveries of tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors. The tunneling effect has made it possible to achieve a deeper understanding of the behavior of electrons in semiconductors and superconductors and macroscopic quantum phenomena in superconductors.

Hideki YUKAWA. Nobel Prize in Physics, 1949

Hideki Yukawa was awarded the prize for predicting the existence of mesons based on theoretical work on nuclear forces. Yukawa's particle became known as the pi meson, then simply the pion. Yukawa's hypothesis was accepted when Cecil F. Powell discovered the Yu particle using an ionization chamber placed at high altitudes, then mesons were artificially produced in the laboratory.

Zhenning YANG. Nobel Prize in Physics, 1957

For his foresight in studying the so-called parity laws, which led to important discoveries in the field of elementary particles, Zhenning Yang received the prize. The most dead-end problem in the field of elementary particle physics was solved, after which experimental and theoretical work was in full swing.

Municipal educational institution

"Secondary school No. 2 in the village of Energetik"

Novoorsky district, Orenburg region

Abstract on physics on the topic:

“Russian physicists are laureates

Ryzhkova Arina,

Fomchenko Sergey

Head: Ph.D., physics teacher

Dolgova Valentina Mikhailovna

Address: 462803 Orenburg region, Novoorsky district,

Energetik village, Tsentralnaya st., 79/2, apt. 22

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………3

1. The Nobel Prize as the highest honor for scientists………………………………………………………..4

2. P.A. Cherenkov, I.E. Tamm and I.M. Frank - the first physicists of our country - laureates

Nobel Prize…………………………………………………………………………………..…5

2.1. “Cherenkov effect”, Cherenkov phenomenon……………………………………………………….….5

2.2. The theory of electron radiation by Igor Tamm…………………………………….…….6

2.2. Frank Ilya Mikhailovich ……………………………………………………….….7

3. Lev Landau – creator of the theory of helium superfluidity…………………………………...8

4. Inventors of the optical quantum generator…………………………………….….9

4.1. Nikolay Basov…………………………………………………………………………………..9

4.2. Alexander Prokhorov………………………………………………………………………………9

5. Pyotr Kapitsa as one of the greatest experimental physicists………………..…10

6. Development of information and communication technologies. Zhores Alferov………..…11

7. Contribution of Abrikosov and Ginzburg to the theory of superconductors…………………………12

7.1. Alexey Abrikosov……………………………..…………………………….…12

7.2. Vitaly Ginzburg…………………………………………………………………….13

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..15

List of used literature……………………………………………………….15

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………….16

Introduction

Relevance.

The development of the science of physics is accompanied by constant changes: the discovery of new phenomena, the establishment of laws, the improvement of research methods, the emergence of new theories. Unfortunately, historical information about the discovery of laws and the introduction of new concepts is often beyond the scope of the textbook and the educational process.

The authors of the abstract and the supervisor are unanimous in the opinion that the implementation of the principle of historicism in teaching physics inherently implies the inclusion in the educational process, in the content of the material being studied, of information from the history of the development (birth, formation, current state and development prospects) of science.

By the principle of historicism in teaching physics, we understand a historical and methodological approach, which is determined by the focus of teaching on the formation of methodological knowledge about the process of cognition, the cultivation of humanistic thinking and patriotism in students, and the development of cognitive interest in the subject.

The use of information from the history of physics in lessons is of interest. An appeal to the history of science shows how difficult and long the path of a scientist to the truth, which today is formulated in the form of a short equation or law. The information students need, first of all, includes biographies of great scientists and the history of significant scientific discoveries.

In this regard, our essay examines the contribution to the development of physics of the great Soviet and Russian scientists who have been awarded world recognition and a great award - the Nobel Prize.

Thus, the relevance of our topic is due to:

· the role played by the principle of historicism in educational knowledge;

· the need to develop cognitive interest in the subject through the communication of historical information;

· the importance of studying the achievements of outstanding Russian physicists for the formation of patriotism and a sense of pride in the younger generation.

Let us note that there are 19 Russian Nobel Prize laureates. These are physicists A. Abrikosov, Zh. Alferov, N. Basov, V. Ginzburg, P. Kapitsa, L. Landau, A. Prokhorov, I. Tamm, P. Cherenkov, A. Sakharov (peace prize), I. Frank ; Russian writers I. Bunin, B. Pasternak, A. Solzhenitsyn, M. Sholokhov; M. Gorbachev (Peace Prize), Russian physiologists I. Mechnikov and I. Pavlov; chemist N. Semenov.

The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to the famous German scientist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen for the discovery of the rays that now bear his name.

The purpose of the abstract is to systematize materials about the contribution of Russian (Soviet) physicists - Nobel Prize laureates to the development of science.

Tasks:

1. Study the history of the prestigious international award - the Nobel Prize.

2. Conduct a historiographic analysis of the life and work of Russian physicists who were awarded the Nobel Prize.

3. Continue developing the skills to systematize and generalize knowledge based on the history of physics.

4. Develop a series of speeches on the topic “Physicists are Nobel Prize winners.”

1. The Nobel Prize as the highest honor for scientists

Having analyzed a number of works (2, 11, 17, 18), we found that Alfred Nobel left his mark on history not only because he was the founder of a prestigious international award, but also because he was a scientist-inventor. He died on December 10, 1896. In his famous will, written in Paris on November 27, 1895, he stated:

“All my remaining realizable wealth is distributed as follows. The whole capital shall be deposited by my executors in safe custody under surety and shall form a fund; its purpose is to annually award cash prizes to those individuals who, during the previous year, have managed to bring the greatest benefit to humanity. What has been said regarding the nomination provides that the prize fund should be divided into five equal parts, awarded as follows: one part - to the person who will make the most important discovery or invention in the field of physics; the second part - to the person who will achieve the most important improvement or make a discovery in the field of chemistry; the third part - to the person who makes the most important discovery in the field of physiology or medicine; the fourth part - to a person who in the field of literature will create an outstanding work of idealistic orientation; and, finally, the fifth part - to the person who will make the greatest contribution to strengthening the commonwealth of nations, to eliminating or reducing the tension of confrontation between armed forces, as well as to organizing or facilitating the holding of congresses of peace forces.

Prizes in physics and chemistry are to be awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; awards in the field of physiology and medicine should be awarded by the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm; awards in the field of literature are awarded by the (Swedish) Academy in Stockholm; finally, the Peace Prize is awarded by a committee of five members chosen by the Norwegian Storting (parliament). This is my expression of will, and the awarding of awards should not be linked to the laureate’s affiliation with a particular nation, just as the amount of the award should not be determined by affiliation with a particular nationality” (2).

From the section “Nobel Prize Laureates” of the encyclopedia (8) we received information that the status of the Nobel Foundation and special rules regulating the activities of the institutions awarding the prizes were promulgated at a meeting of the Royal Council on June 29, 1900. The first Nobel Prizes were awarded on December 10 1901 Current special rules for the organization awarding the Nobel Peace Prize, i.e. for the Norwegian Nobel Committee, dated April 10, 1905.

In 1968, on the occasion of its 300th anniversary, the Swedish Bank proposed a prize in the field of economics. After some hesitation, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences accepted the role of awarding institute for this discipline, in accordance with the same principles and rules that applied to the original Nobel Prizes. The prize, which was established in memory of Alfred Nobel, will be awarded on December 10, following the presentation of other Nobel laureates. Officially called the Alfred Nobel Prize in Economics, it was first awarded in 1969.

These days, the Nobel Prize is widely known as the highest honor for human intelligence. In addition, this prize can be classified as one of the few awards known not only to every scientist, but also to a large part of non-specialists.

The prestige of the Nobel Prize depends on the effectiveness of the mechanism used for the selection procedure for the laureate in each area. This mechanism was established from the very beginning, when it was considered appropriate to collect documented proposals from qualified experts in various countries, thereby once again emphasizing the international nature of the award.

The award ceremony takes place as follows. The Nobel Foundation invites the laureates and their families to Stockholm and Oslo on December 10. In Stockholm, the honoring ceremony takes place in the Concert Hall in the presence of about 1,200 people. Prizes in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature and economics are presented by the King of Sweden after a brief presentation of the laureate's achievements by representatives of the awarding assemblies. The celebration ends with a banquet organized by the Nobel Foundation in the city hall.

In Oslo, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony is held at the university, in the Assembly Hall, in the presence of the King of Norway and members of the royal family. The laureate receives the award from the hands of the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. In accordance with the rules of the awards ceremony in Stockholm and Oslo, laureates present their Nobel lectures to the audience, which are then published in a special publication “Nobel Laureates”.

The Nobel Prizes are unique awards and are particularly prestigious.

When writing this essay, we asked ourselves the question why these awards attract so much more attention than any other awards of the 20th-21st centuries.

The answer was found in scientific articles (8, 17). One reason may be the fact that they were introduced in a timely manner and that they marked some fundamental historical changes in society. Alfred Nobel was a true internationalist, and from the very foundation of the prizes named after him, the international nature of the awards made a special impression. Strict rules for the selection of laureates, which began to apply since the establishment of the prizes, also played a role in recognizing the importance of the awards in question. As soon as the election for the current year's laureates ends in December, preparations begin for the election of next year's laureates. Such year-round activities, in which so many intellectuals from all over the world participate, orient scientists, writers and public figures to work in the interests of social development, which precedes the awarding of prizes for “contribution to human progress.”

2. P.A. Cherenkov, I.E. Tamm and I.M. Frank - the first physicists of our country - Nobel Prize laureates.

2.1. "Cherenkov effect", Cherenkov phenomenon.

Summarizing sources (1, 8, 9, 19) allowed us to get acquainted with the biography of the outstanding scientist.

Russian physicist Pavel Alekseevich Cherenkov was born in Novaya Chigla near Voronezh. His parents Alexey and Maria Cherenkov were peasants. After graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Voronezh University in 1928, he worked as a teacher for two years. In 1930, he became a graduate student at the Institute of Physics and Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Leningrad and received his Ph.D. degree in 1935. He then became a research fellow at the Physics Institute. P.N. Lebedev in Moscow, where he later worked.

In 1932, under the leadership of Academician S.I. Vavilova, Cherenkov began to study the light that appears when solutions absorb high-energy radiation, for example, radiation from radioactive substances. He was able to show that in almost all cases the light was caused by known causes, such as fluorescence.

The Cherenkov cone of radiation is similar to the wave that occurs when a boat moves at a speed exceeding the speed of propagation of waves in water. It is also similar to the shock wave that occurs when an airplane crosses the sound barrier.

For this work, Cherenkov received the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1940. Together with Vavilov, Tamm and Frank, he received the Stalin (later renamed the State) Prize of the USSR in 1946.

In 1958, together with Tamm and Frank, Cherenkov was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “for the discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect.” Manne Sigbahn of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences noted in his speech that “the discovery of the phenomenon now known as the Cherenkov effect provides an interesting example of how a relatively simple physical observation, if done correctly, can lead to important discoveries and pave new paths for further research.” .

Cherenkov was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1964 and an academician in 1970. He was a three-time laureate of the USSR State Prize, had two Orders of Lenin, two Orders of the Red Banner of Labor and other state awards.

2.2. The theory of electron radiation by Igor Tamm

Studying the biographical data and scientific activities of Igor Tamm (1,8,9,10, 17,18) allows us to judge him as an outstanding scientist of the 20th century.

July 8, 2008 marks the 113th anniversary of the birth of Igor Evgenievich Tamm, winner of the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Tamm's works are devoted to classical electrodynamics, quantum theory, solid state physics, optics, nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, and problems of thermonuclear fusion.
The future great physicist was born in 1895 in Vladivostok. Surprisingly, in his youth, Igor Tamm was interested in politics much more than science. As a high school student, he literally raved about the revolution, hated tsarism and considered himself a convinced Marxist. Even in Scotland, at the University of Edinburgh, where his parents sent him out of concern for the future fate of their son, young Tamm continued to study the works of Karl Marx and participate in political rallies.
From 1924 to 1941 Tamm worked at Moscow University (since 1930 - professor, head of the department of theoretical physics); in 1934, Tamm became the head of the theoretical department of the Physical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now this department bears his name); in 1945 he organized the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, where he was the head of the department for a number of years.

During this period of his scientific activity, Tamm created a complete quantum theory of light scattering in crystals (1930), for which he carried out the quantization of not only light, but also elastic waves in a solid, introducing the concept of phonons - sound quanta; together with S.P. Shubin, laid the foundations of the quantum mechanical theory of the photoelectric effect in metals (1931); gave a consistent derivation of the Klein-Nishina formula for the scattering of light by an electron (1930); using quantum mechanics, he showed the possibility of the existence of special states of electrons on the surface of a crystal (Tamm levels) (1932); built together with D.D. Ivanenko one of the first field theories of nuclear forces (1934), in which the possibility of transfer of interactions by particles of finite mass was first shown; together with L.I. Mandelstam gave a more general interpretation of the Heisenberg uncertainty relation in terms of “energy-time” (1934).

In 1937, Igor Evgenievich, together with Frank, developed the theory of radiation of an electron moving in a medium with a speed exceeding the phase speed of light in this medium - the theory of the Vavilov-Cherenkov effect - for which almost a decade later he was awarded the Lenin Prize (1946), and more than two - Nobel Prize (1958). Simultaneously with Tamm, the Nobel Prize was received by I.M. Frank and P.A. Cherenkov, and this was the first time that Soviet physicists became Nobel laureates. True, it should be noted that Igor Evgenievich himself believed that he did not receive the prize for his best work. He even wanted to give the prize to the state, but he was told that this was not necessary.
In subsequent years, Igor Evgenievich continued to study the problem of the interaction of relativistic particles, trying to build a theory of elementary particles that included elementary length. Academician Tamm created a brilliant school of theoretical physicists.

It includes such outstanding physicists as V.L. Ginzburg, M.A. Markov, E.L. Feinberg, L.V. Keldysh, D.A. Kirzhnits and others.

2.3. Frank Ilya Mikhailovich

Having summarized information about the wonderful scientist I. Frank (1, 8, 17, 20), we learned the following:

Frank Ilya Mikhailovich (October 23, 1908 - June 22, 1990) - Russian scientist, Nobel Prize laureate in physics (1958) together with Pavel Cherenkov and Igor Tamm.
Ilya Mikhailovich Frank was born in St. Petersburg. He was the youngest son of Mikhail Lyudvigovich Frank, a professor of mathematics, and Elizaveta Mikhailovna Frank. (Gracianova), a physicist by profession. In 1930, he graduated from Moscow State University with a degree in physics, where his teacher was S.I. Vavilov, later president of the USSR Academy of Sciences, under whose leadership Frank conducted experiments with luminescence and its attenuation in solution. At the Leningrad State Optical Institute, Frank studied photochemical reactions using optical means in the laboratory of A.V. Terenina. Here his research attracted attention with the elegance of his methodology, originality and comprehensive analysis of experimental data. In 1935, on the basis of this work, he defended his dissertation and received the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences.
At the invitation of Vavilov in 1934, Frank entered the Physics Institute. P.N. Lebedev Academy of Sciences of the USSR in Moscow, where he has worked since then. Together with his colleague L.V. Groshev Frank made a thorough comparison of theory and experimental data regarding the recently discovered phenomenon, which consisted of the formation of an electron-positron pair when krypton was exposed to gamma radiation. In 1936-1937 Frank and Igor Tamm were able to calculate the properties of an electron moving uniformly in a medium at a speed exceeding the speed of light in this medium (something reminiscent of a boat moving through water faster than the waves it creates). They discovered that in this case energy is emitted, and the angle of propagation of the resulting wave is simply expressed in terms of the speed of the electron and the speed of light in a given medium and in a vacuum. One of the first triumphs of Frank and Tamm's theory was the explanation of the polarization of Cherenkov radiation, which, unlike the case of luminescence, was parallel to the incident radiation rather than perpendicular to it. The theory seemed so successful that Frank, Tamm and Cherenkov experimentally tested some of its predictions, such as the presence of a certain energy threshold for incident gamma radiation, the dependence of this threshold on the refractive index of the medium and the shape of the resulting radiation (a hollow cone with an axis along the direction of the incident radiation ). All these predictions were confirmed.

Three living members of this group (Vavilov died in 1951) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1958 “for the discovery and interpretation of the Cherenkov effect.” In his Nobel lecture, Frank pointed out that the Cherenkov effect “has numerous applications in high-energy particle physics.” “The connection between this phenomenon and other problems has also become clear,” he added, “such as the connection with plasma physics, astrophysics, the problem of generating radio waves and the problem of particle acceleration.”
In addition to optics, Frank's other scientific interests, especially during the Second World War, included nuclear physics. In the mid-40s. he carried out theoretical and experimental work on the propagation and increase in the number of neutrons in uranium-graphite systems and thus contributed to the creation of the atomic bomb. He also thought experimentally about the production of neutrons in the interactions of light atomic nuclei, as well as in the interactions between high-speed neutrons and various nuclei.
In 1946, Frank organized the atomic nucleus laboratory at the Institute. Lebedev and became its leader. Having been a professor at Moscow State University since 1940, Frank from 1946 to 1956 headed the radioactive radiation laboratory at the Research Institute of Nuclear Physics at Moscow State University. university.
A year later, under Frank's leadership, a neutron physics laboratory was created at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna. Here, in 1960, a pulsed fast neutron reactor was launched for spectroscopic neutron research.

In 1977 A new and more powerful pulsed reactor came into operation.
Colleagues believed that Frank had depth and clarity of thinking, the ability to reveal the essence of a matter using the most elementary methods, as well as special intuition regarding the most difficult to comprehend questions of experiment and theory.

His scientific articles are extremely appreciated for their clarity and logical precision.

3. Lev Landau – creator of the theory of helium superfluidity

We received information about the brilliant scientist from Internet sources and scientific and biographical reference books (5,14, 17, 18), which indicate that the Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau was born into the family of David and Lyubov Landau in Baku. His father was a famous petroleum engineer who worked in the local oil fields, and his mother was a doctor. She was engaged in physiological research.

Although Landau attended high school and graduated brilliantly when he was thirteen years old, his parents considered him too young for a higher educational institution and sent him to the Baku Economic College for a year.

In 1922, Landau entered the University of Baku, where he studied physics and chemistry; two years later he transferred to the physics department of Leningrad University. By the time he was 19 years old, Landau had published four scientific papers. One of them was the first to use the density matrix, a now widely used mathematical expression for describing quantum energy states. After graduating from the university in 1927, Landau entered graduate school at the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology, where he worked on the magnetic theory of the electron and quantum electrodynamics.

From 1929 to 1931, Landau was on a scientific trip to Germany, Switzerland, England, the Netherlands and Denmark.

In 1931, Landau returned to Leningrad, but soon moved to Kharkov, which was then the capital of Ukraine. There Landau becomes the head of the theoretical department of the Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology. The USSR Academy of Sciences awarded him the academic degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1934 without defending a dissertation, and the following year he received the title of professor. Landau made major contributions to quantum theory and to research into the nature and interaction of elementary particles.

The unusually wide range of his research, covering almost all areas of theoretical physics, attracted many highly gifted students and young scientists to Kharkov, including Evgeniy Mikhailovich Lifshitz, who became not only Landau’s closest collaborator, but also his personal friend.

In 1937, Landau, at the invitation of Pyotr Kapitsa, headed the department of theoretical physics at the newly created Institute of Physical Problems in Moscow. When Landau moved from Kharkov to Moscow, Kapitsa's experiments with liquid helium were in full swing.

The scientist explained the superfluidity of helium using a fundamentally new mathematical apparatus. While other researchers applied quantum mechanics to the behavior of individual atoms, he treated the quantum states of a volume of liquid almost as if it were a solid. Landau hypothesized the existence of two components of motion, or excitation: phonons, which describe the relatively normal rectilinear propagation of sound waves at low values ​​of momentum and energy, and rotons, which describe rotational motion, i.e. more complex manifestation of excitations at higher values ​​of momentum and energy. The observed phenomena are due to the contributions of phonons and rotons and their interaction.

In addition to the Nobel and Lenin Prizes, Landau was awarded three State Prizes of the USSR. He was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. In 1946 he was elected to the USSR Academy of Sciences. The academies of sciences of Denmark, the Netherlands and the USA, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences elected him as a member. French Physical Society, London Physical Society and Royal Society of London.

4. Inventors of the optical quantum generator

4.1. Nikolay Basov

We found (3, 9, 14) that the Russian physicist Nikolai Gennadievich Basov was born in the village (now city) Usman, near Voronezh, in the family of Gennady Fedorovich Basov and Zinaida Andreevna Molchanova. His father, a professor at the Voronezh Forestry Institute, specialized in the effects of forest plantings on groundwater and surface drainage. After graduating from school in 1941, young Basov went to serve in the Soviet Army. In 1950 he graduated from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.

At the All-Union Conference on Radio Spectroscopy in May 1952, Basov and Prokhorov proposed the design of a molecular oscillator based on population inversion, the idea of ​​which, however, they did not publish until October 1954. The following year, Basov and Prokhorov published a note on the “three-level method.” According to this scheme, if atoms are transferred from the ground state to the highest of three energy levels, there will be more molecules in the intermediate level than in the lower one, and stimulated emission can be produced with a frequency corresponding to the difference in energy between the two lower levels. “For his fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which led to the creation of oscillators and amplifiers based on the laser-maser principle,” Basov shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics with Prokhorov and Townes. Two Soviet physicists had already received the Lenin Prize for their work in 1959.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Basov received the title of twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1969, 1982), and was awarded the gold medal of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (1975). He was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1962), a full member (1966) and a member of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences (1967). He is a member of many other academies of sciences, including the academies of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and France; he is also a member of the German Academy of Naturalists "Leopoldina", the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences and the Optical Society of America. Basov is vice-chairman of the executive council of the World Federation of Scientific Workers and president of the All-Union Society "Znanie". He is a member of the Soviet Peace Committee and the World Peace Council, as well as the editor-in-chief of the popular science magazines Nature and Quantum. He was elected to the Supreme Council in 1974 and was a member of its Presidium in 1982.

4.2. Alexander Prokhorov

A historiographic approach to studying the life and work of the famous physicist (1,8,14,18) allowed us to obtain the following information.

Russian physicist Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov, son of Mikhail Ivanovich Prokhorov and Maria Ivanovna (nee Mikhailova) Prokhorova, was born in Atherton (Australia), where his family moved in 1911 after Prokhorov’s parents escaped from Siberian exile.

Prokhorov and Basov proposed a method of using stimulated radiation. If excited molecules are separated from molecules in the ground state, which can be done using a non-uniform electric or magnetic field, then it is possible to create a substance whose molecules are at the upper energy level. Radiation incident on this substance with a frequency (photon energy) equal to the energy difference between the excited and ground levels would cause the emission of stimulated radiation with the same frequency, i.e. would lead to strengthening. By diverting some of the energy to excite new molecules, it would be possible to turn the amplifier into a molecular oscillator capable of generating radiation in a self-sustaining mode.

Prokhorov and Basov reported the possibility of creating such a molecular oscillator at the All-Union Conference on Radio Spectroscopy in May 1952, but their first publication dates back to October 1954. In 1955, they propose a new “three-level method” for creating a maser. In this method, atoms (or molecules) are pumped into the highest of three energy levels by absorbing radiation with an energy corresponding to the difference between the highest and lowest levels. Most atoms quickly “fall” into an intermediate energy level, which turns out to be densely populated. The maser emits radiation at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference between the intermediate and lower levels.

Since the mid-50s. Prokhorov focuses his efforts on the development of masers and lasers and on the search for crystals with suitable spectral and relaxation properties. His detailed studies of ruby, one of the best crystals for lasers, led to the widespread use of ruby ​​resonators for microwave and optical wavelengths. To overcome some of the difficulties that have arisen in connection with the creation of molecular oscillators operating in the submillimeter range, P. proposes a new open resonator consisting of two mirrors. This type of resonator proved to be especially effective in the creation of lasers in the 60s.

The 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics was divided: one half was awarded to Prokhorov and Basov, the other half to Townes “for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, leading to the creation of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle” (1). In 1960, Prokhorov was elected a corresponding member, in 1966 - a full member, and in 1970 - a member of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He is an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1969, he was appointed editor-in-chief of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Prokhorov is an honorary professor at the universities of Delhi (1967) and Bucharest (1971). The Soviet government awarded him the title of Hero of Socialist Labor (1969).

5. Peter Kapitsa as one of the greatest experimental physicists

When abstracting articles (4, 9, 14, 17), we were of great interest in the life path and scientific research of the great Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa.

He was born in the Kronstadt naval fortress, located on an island in the Gulf of Finland near St. Petersburg, where his father Leonid Petrovich Kapitsa, lieutenant general of the engineering corps, served. Kapitsa's mother Olga Ieronimovna Kapitsa (Stebnitskaya) was a famous teacher and collector of folklore. After graduating from the gymnasium in Kronstadt, Kapitsa entered the faculty of electrical engineers at the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute, from which he graduated in 1918. For the next three years, he taught at the same institute. Under the leadership of A.F. Ioffe, who was the first in Russia to begin research in the field of atomic physics, Kapitsa, together with his classmate Nikolai Semenov, developed a method for measuring the magnetic moment of an atom in a non-uniform magnetic field, which was improved in 1921 by Otto Stern.

At Cambridge, Kapits's scientific authority grew rapidly. He successfully moved up the levels of the academic hierarchy. In 1923, Kapitsa became a Doctor of Science and received the prestigious James Clerk Maxwell Fellowship. In 1924 he was appointed Deputy Director of the Cavendish Laboratory for Magnetic Research, and in 1925 he became a Fellow of Trinity College. In 1928, the USSR Academy of Sciences awarded Kapitsa the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences and in 1929 elected him as its corresponding member. The following year, Kapitsa becomes a research professor at the Royal Society of London. At Rutherford's insistence, the Royal Society is building a new laboratory specifically for Kapitsa. It was named the Mond Laboratory in honor of the chemist and industrialist of German origin, Ludwig Mond, with whose funds, left in his will to the Royal Society of London, it was built. The opening of the laboratory took place in 1934. Kapitsa became its first director. But he was destined to work there for only one year.

In 1935, Kapitsa was offered to become director of the newly created Institute of Physical Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences, but before giving consent, Kapitsa refused the proposed post for almost a year. Rutherford, resigned to the loss of his outstanding collaborator, allowed the Soviet authorities to buy the equipment from Mond's laboratory and ship it by sea to the USSR. Negotiations, transportation of equipment and its installation at the Institute of Physical Problems took several years.

Kapitsa was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978 “for his fundamental inventions and discoveries in the field of low-temperature physics.” He shared his award with Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson. Introducing the laureates, Lamek Hulten of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences remarked: “Kapitsa stands before us as one of the greatest experimentalists of our time, an undisputed pioneer, leader and master in his field.”

Kapitsa was awarded many awards and honorary titles both in his homeland and in many countries around the world. He was an honorary doctorate from eleven universities on four continents, a member of many scientific societies, the academy of the United States of America, the Soviet Union and most European countries, and was the recipient of numerous honors and awards for his scientific and political activities, including seven Orders of Lenin.

1. Development of information and communication technologies. Zhores Alferov

Zhores Ivanovich Alferov was born in Belarus, in Vitebsk, on March 15, 1930. On the advice of his school teacher, Alferov entered the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute at the Faculty of Electronic Engineering.

In 1953 he graduated from the institute and, as one of the best students, was hired at the Physico-Technical Institute in the laboratory of V.M. Tuchkevich. Alferov still works at this institute to this day, since 1987 - as director.

The authors of the abstract summarized these data using Internet publications about outstanding physicists of our time (11, 12,17).
In the first half of the 1950s, Tuchkevich's laboratory began to develop domestic semiconductor devices based on germanium single crystals. Alferov participated in the creation of the first transistors and power germanium thyristors in the USSR, and in 1959 he defended his PhD thesis on the study of germanium and silicon power rectifiers. In those years, the idea of ​​using heterojunctions rather than homojunctions in semiconductors to create more efficient devices was first put forward. However, many considered work on heterojunction structures to be unpromising, since by that time the creation of a junction close to ideal and the selection of heterojunctions seemed an insurmountable task. However, based on the so-called epitaxial methods, which make it possible to vary the parameters of the semiconductor, Alferov managed to select a pair - GaAs and GaAlAs - and create effective heterostructures. He still likes to joke about this topic, saying that “normal is when it’s hetero, not homo. Hetero is the normal way of development of nature.”

Since 1968, a competition has developed between LFTI and the American companies Bell Telephone, IBM and RCA - who will be the first to develop industrial technology for creating semiconductors on heterostructures. Domestic scientists managed to be literally a month ahead of their competitors; The first continuous laser based on heterojunctions was also created in Russia, in Alferov’s laboratory. The same laboratory is rightfully proud of the development and creation of solar batteries, successfully used in 1986 on the Mir space station: the batteries lasted their entire service life until 2001 without a noticeable decrease in power.

The technology for constructing semiconductor systems has reached such a level that it has become possible to set almost any parameters to the crystal: in particular, if the band gaps are arranged in a certain way, then conduction electrons in semiconductors can move only in one plane - the so-called “quantum plane” is obtained. If the band gaps are arranged differently, then conduction electrons can move only in one direction - this is a “quantum wire”; it is possible to completely block the possibilities of movement of free electrons - you will get a “quantum dot”. It is precisely the production and study of the properties of low-dimensional nanostructures—quantum wires and quantum dots—that Alferov is engaged in today.

According to the well-known “physics and technology” tradition, Alferov has been combining scientific research with teaching for many years. Since 1973, he has headed the basic department of optoelectronics at the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute (now St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University), since 1988 he has been the dean of the Faculty of Physics and Technology at St. Petersburg State Technical University.

Alferov's scientific authority is extremely high. In 1972 he was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, in 1979 - its full member, in 1990 - vice-president of the Russian Academy of Sciences and President of the St. Petersburg Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Alferov is an honorary doctor of many universities and an honorary member of many academies. Awarded the Ballantyne Gold Medal (1971) of the Franklin Institute (USA), the Hewlett-Packard Prize of the European Physical Society (1972), the H. Welker Medal (1987), the A.P. Karpinsky Prize and the A.F. Ioffe Prize of the Russian Academy of Sciences, National non-governmental Demidov Prize of the Russian Federation (1999), Kyoto Prize for advanced achievements in the field of electronics (2001).

In 2000, Alferov received the Nobel Prize in Physics “for achievements in electronics” together with the Americans J. Kilby and G. Kroemer. Kremer, like Alferov, received an award for the development of semiconductor heterostructures and the creation of fast opto- and microelectronic components (Alferov and Kremer received half of the cash prize), and Kilby for the development of the ideology and technology for creating microchips (the second half).

7. Contribution of Abrikosov and Ginzburg to the theory of superconductors

7.1. Alexey Abrikosov

Many articles written about Russian and American physicists give us an idea of ​​the extraordinary talent and great achievements of A. Abrikosov as a scientist (6, 15, 16).

A. A. Abrikosov was born on June 25, 1928 in Moscow. After graduating from school in 1943, he began to study energy engineering, but in 1945 he moved on to study physics. In 1975, Abrikosov became an honorary doctor at the University of Lausanne.

In 1991, he accepted an invitation from the Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois and moved to the United States. In 1999, he accepted American citizenship. Abrikosov is a member of various famous institutions, for example. US National Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, Royal Scientific Society and American Academy of Sciences and Arts.

In addition to his scientific activities, he also taught. First at Moscow State University - until 1969. From 1970 to 1972 at Gorky University and from 1976 to 1991 he headed the department of theoretical physics at the Physics and Technology Institute in Moscow. In the USA he taught at the University of Illinois (Chicago) and at the University of Utah. In England he taught at the University of Lorborough.

Abrikosov, together with Zavaritsky, an experimental physicist from the Institute of Physical Problems, discovered, while testing the Ginzburg-Landau theory, a new class of superconductors - superconductors of the second type. This new type of superconductor, unlike the first type of superconductor, retains its properties even in the presence of a strong magnetic field (up to 25 Tesla). Abrikosov was able to explain such properties, developing the reasoning of his colleague Vitaly Ginzburg, by the formation of a regular lattice of magnetic lines that are surrounded by ring currents. This structure is called the Abrikosov Vortex Lattice.

Abrikosov also worked on the problem of the transition of hydrogen into the metallic phase inside hydrogen planets, high-energy quantum electrodynamics, superconductivity in high-frequency fields and in the presence of magnetic inclusions (at the same time, he discovered the possibility of superconductivity without a stop band) and was able to explain the Knight shift at low temperatures by taking into account the spin- orbital interaction. Other works were devoted to the theory of non-superfluid ³He and matter at high pressures, semimetals and metal-insulator transitions, the Kondo effect at low temperatures (he also predicted the Abrikosov-Soul resonance) and the construction of semiconductors without a stop band. Other studies focused on one-dimensional or quasi-one-dimensional conductors and spin glasses.

At the Argonne National Laboratory, he was able to explain most of the properties of high-temperature superconductors based on cuprate and established in 1998 a new effect (the effect of linear quantum magnetic resistance), which was first measured back in 1928 by Kapitsa, but was never considered as an independent effect.

In 2003, he, jointly with Ginzburg and Leggett, received the Nobel Prize in Physics for “fundamental work on the theory of superconductors and superfluids.”

Abrikosov received many awards: corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (today the Russian Academy of Sciences) since 1964, Lenin Prize in 1966, honorary doctor of the University of Lausanne (1975), USSR State Prize (1972), Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences ( today of the Russian Academy of Sciences) since 1987, Landau Prize (1989), John Bardeen Prize (1991), foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Sciences and Arts (1991), member of the US Academy of Sciences (2000), foreign member of the Royal Scientific Society (2001) ), Nobel Prize in Physics, 2003

7.2. Vitaly Ginzburg

Based on data obtained from analyzed sources (1, 7, 13, 15, 17), we have formed an idea of ​​V. Ginzburg’s outstanding contribution to the development of physics.

V.L. Ginzburg, the only child in the family, was born on October 4, 1916 in Moscow and was. His father was an engineer and his mother a doctor. In 1931, after finishing seven classes, V.L. Ginzburg entered the X-ray structural laboratory of one of the universities as a laboratory assistant, and in 1933 he unsuccessfully passed exams for the physics department of Moscow State University. Having entered the correspondence department of the physics department, a year later he transferred to the 2nd year of the full-time department.

In 1938 V.L. Ginzburg graduated with honors from the Department of Optics of the Faculty of Physics of Moscow State University, which was then headed by our outstanding scientist, academician G.S. Landsberg. After graduating from the University, Vitaly Lazarevich was retained in graduate school. He considered himself not a very strong mathematician and at first did not intend to study theoretical physics. Even before graduating from Moscow State University, he was given an experimental task - to study the spectrum of “channel rays”. The work was carried out by him under the guidance of S.M. Levi. In the fall of 1938, Vitaly Lazarevich approached the head of the department of theoretical physics, future academician and Nobel Prize laureate Igor Evgenievich Tamm, with a proposal for a possible explanation for the supposed angular dependence of the radiation of channel rays. And although this idea turned out to be wrong, it was then that his close cooperation and friendship with I.E. began. Tamm, who played a huge role in the life of Vitaly Lazarevich. Vitaly Lazarevich's first three articles on theoretical physics, published in 1939, formed the basis of his Ph.D. thesis, which he defended in May 1940 at Moscow State University. In September 1940 V.L. Ginzburg was enrolled in doctoral studies in the theoretical department of the Lebedev Physical Institute, founded by I.E. Tamm in 1934. From that time on, the entire life of the future Nobel Prize laureate took place within the walls of the Lebedev Physical Institute. In July 1941, a month after the start of the war, Vitaly Lazarevich and his family were evacuated from the FIAN to Kazan. There in May 1942 he defended his doctoral dissertation on the theory of particles with higher spins. At the end of 1943, returning to Moscow, Ginzburg became I.E. Tamm’s deputy in the theoretical department. He remained in this position for the next 17 years.

In 1943, he became interested in studying the nature of superconductivity, discovered by the Dutch physicist and chemist Kamerlingh-Ohness in 1911 and which had no explanation at that time. The most famous of the large number of works in this area was written by V.L. Ginzburg in 1950 together with academician and also future Nobel laureate Lev Davydovich Landau - undoubtedly our most outstanding physicist. It was published in the Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics (JETF).

On the breadth of V.L.’s astrophysical horizons Ginzburg can be judged by the titles of his reports at these seminars. Here are the topics of some of them:

· September 15, 1966 “Results of the conference on radio astronomy and the structure of the galaxy” (Holland), co-authored with S.B. Pikelner;

V.L. Ginzburg published over 400 scientific papers and a dozen books and monographs. He was elected a member of 9 foreign academies, including: the Royal Society of London (1987), the American National Academy (1981), and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1971). He has been awarded several medals from international scientific societies.

V.L. Ginzburg is not only a recognized authority in the scientific world, as the Nobel Committee confirmed with its decision, but also a public figure who devotes a lot of time and effort to the fight against bureaucracy of all stripes and manifestations of anti-scientific tendencies.

Conclusion

Nowadays, knowledge of the basics of physics is necessary for everyone in order to have a correct understanding of the world around us - from the properties of elementary particles to the evolution of the Universe. For those who have decided to connect their future profession with physics, studying this science will help them take the first steps towards mastering the profession. We can learn how even seemingly abstract physical research gave birth to new areas of technology, gave impetus to the development of industry and led to what is commonly called scientific and technological revolution. The successes of nuclear physics, solid state theory, electrodynamics, statistical physics, and quantum mechanics determined the appearance of technology at the end of the twentieth century, such areas as laser technology, nuclear energy, and electronics. Is it possible to imagine in our time any areas of science and technology without electronic computers? Many of us, after graduating from school, will have the opportunity to work in one of these areas, and whoever we become - skilled workers, laboratory assistants, technicians, engineers, doctors, astronauts, biologists, archaeologists - knowledge of physics will help us better master our profession.

Physical phenomena are studied in two ways: theoretically and experimentally. In the first case (theoretical physics), new relationships are derived using mathematical apparatus and based on previously known laws of physics. The main tools here are paper and pencil. In the second case (experimental physics), new connections between phenomena are obtained using physical measurements. Here the instruments are much more diverse - numerous measuring instruments, accelerators, bubble chambers, etc.

In order to explore new areas of physics, in order to understand the essence of modern discoveries, it is necessary to thoroughly understand already established truths.

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Application

Nobel Prize Laureates in Physics

1901 Roentgen V.K. (Germany). Discovery of “x” rays (X-rays).

1902 Zeeman P., Lorenz H. A. (Netherlands). Study of the splitting of spectral emission lines of atoms when placing a radiation source in a magnetic field.

1903 Becquerel A. A. (France). Discovery of natural radioactivity.

1903 Curie P., Sklodowska-Curie M. (France). Study of the phenomenon of radioactivity discovered by A. A. Becquerel.

1904 Strett J. W. (Great Britain). Discovery of argon.

1905 Lenard F. E. A. (Germany). Research of cathode rays.

1906 Thomson J. J. (Great Britain). Study of electrical conductivity of gases.

1907 Michelson A. A. (USA). Creation of high-precision optical instruments; spectroscopic and metrological studies.

1908 Lipman G. (France). Discovery of color photography.

1909 Brown K.F. (Germany), Marconi G. (Italy). Work in the field of wireless telegraphy.

1910 Waals (van der Waals) J. D. (Netherlands). Studies of the equation of state of gases and liquids.

1911 Win W. (Germany). Discoveries in the field of thermal radiation.

1912 Dalen N. G. (Sweden). Invention of a device for automatically igniting and extinguishing beacons and luminous buoys.

1913 Kamerlingh-Onnes H. (Netherlands). Study of the properties of matter at low temperatures and production of liquid helium.

1914 Laue M. von (Germany). Discovery of X-ray diffraction by crystals.

1915 Bragg W. G., Bragg W. L. (Great Britain). Study of crystal structure using X-rays.

1916 Not awarded.

1917 Barkla Ch. (Great Britain). Discovery of the characteristic X-ray emission of elements.

1918 Planck M. K. (Germany). Merits in the field of development of physics and the discovery of discreteness of radiation energy (quantum of action).

1919 Stark J. (Germany). Discovery of the Doppler effect in channel beams and splitting of spectral lines in electric fields.

1920 Guillaume (Guillaume) S. E. (Switzerland). Creation of iron-nickel alloys for metrological purposes.

1921 Einstein A. (Germany). Contributions to theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.

1922 Bohr N. H. D. (Denmark). Merits in the field of studying the structure of the atom and the radiation emitted by it.

1923 Milliken R. E. (USA). Work on the determination of the elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect.

1924 Sigban K. M. (Sweden). Contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy.

1925 Hertz G., Frank J. (Germany). Discovery of the laws of collision of an electron with an atom.

1926 Perrin J.B. (France). Works on the discrete nature of matter, in particular for the discovery of sedimentation equilibrium.

1927 Wilson C. T. R. (Great Britain). A method for visually observing the trajectories of electrically charged particles using vapor condensation.

1927 Compton A.H. (USA). Discovery of changes in the wavelength of X-rays, scattering by free electrons (Compton effect).

1928 Richardson O. W. (Great Britain). Study of thermionic emission (dependence of emission current on temperature - Richardson formula).

1929 Broglie L. de (France). Discovery of the wave nature of the electron.

1930 Raman C.V. (India). Work on light scattering and the discovery of Raman scattering (Raman effect).

1931 Not awarded.

1932 Heisenberg V.K. (Germany). Participation in the creation of quantum mechanics and its application to the prediction of two states of the hydrogen molecule (ortho- and parahydrogen).

1933 Dirac P. A. M. (Great Britain), Schrödinger E. (Austria). The discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory, that is, the creation of the equations of quantum mechanics.

1934 Not awarded.

1935 Chadwick J. (Great Britain). Discovery of the neutron.

1936 Anderson K. D. (USA). Discovery of the positron in cosmic rays.

1936 Hess W.F. (Austria). Discovery of cosmic rays.

1937 Davisson K.J. (USA), Thomson J.P. (Great Britain). Experimental discovery of electron diffraction in crystals.

1938 Fermi E. (Italy). Evidence of the existence of new radioactive elements obtained by irradiation with neutrons, and the related discovery of nuclear reactions caused by slow neutrons.

1939 Lawrence E. O. (USA). Invention and creation of the cyclotron.

1940-42 Not awarded.

1943 Stern O. (USA). Contribution to the development of the molecular beam method and the discovery and measurement of the magnetic moment of the proton.

1944 Rabi I.A. (USA). Resonance method for measuring the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei

1945 Pauli W. (Switzerland). Discovery of the exclusion principle (Pauli's principle).

1946 Bridgeman P.W. (USA). Discoveries in the field of high pressure physics.

1947 Appleton E. W. (Great Britain). Study of the physics of the upper atmosphere, discovery of a layer of the atmosphere that reflects radio waves (Appleton layer).

1948 Blackett P. M. S. (Great Britain). Improvements to the cloud chamber method and resulting discoveries in nuclear and cosmic ray physics.

1949 Yukawa H. (Japan). Prediction of the existence of mesons based on theoretical work on nuclear forces.

1950 Powell S. F. (Great Britain). Development of a photographic method for studying nuclear processes and discovery of mesons based on this method.

1951 Cockcroft J.D., Walton E.T.S. (Great Britain). Studies of transformations of atomic nuclei using artificially accelerated particles.

1952 Bloch F., Purcell E. M. (USA). Development of new methods for accurately measuring the magnetic moments of atomic nuclei and related discoveries.

1953 Zernike F. (Netherlands). Creation of the phase-contrast method, invention of the phase-contrast microscope.

1954 Born M. (Germany). Fundamental research in quantum mechanics, statistical interpretation of the wave function.

1954 Bothe W. (Germany). Development of a method for recording coincidences (the act of emission of a radiation quantum and an electron during the scattering of an X-ray quantum on hydrogen).

1955 Kush P. (USA). Accurate determination of the magnetic moment of an electron.

1955 Lamb W.Y. (USA). Discovery in the field of fine structure of hydrogen spectra.

1956 Bardeen J., Brattain U., Shockley W. B. (USA). Study of semiconductors and discovery of the transistor effect.

1957 Li (Li Zongdao), Yang (Yang Zhenning) (USA). Study of conservation laws (the discovery of parity nonconservation in weak interactions), which led to important discoveries in particle physics.

1958 Tamm I. E., Frank I. M., Cherenkov P. A. (USSR). Discovery and creation of the theory of the Cherenkov effect.

1959 Segre E., Chamberlain O. (USA). Discovery of the antiproton.

1960 Glaser D. A. (USA). Invention of the bubble chamber.

1961 Mossbauer R. L. (Germany). Research and discovery of resonant absorption of gamma radiation in solids (Mossbauer effect).

1961 Hofstadter R. (USA). Studies of electron scattering on atomic nuclei and related discoveries in the field of nucleon structure.

1962 Landau L. D. (USSR). Theory of condensed matter (especially liquid helium).

1963 Wigner Y. P. (USA). Contribution to the theory of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles.

1963 Geppert-Mayer M. (USA), Jensen J. H. D. (Germany). Discovery of the shell structure of the atomic nucleus.

1964 Basov N. G., Prokhorov A. M. (USSR), Townes C. H. (USA). Work in the field of quantum electronics, leading to the creation of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle.

1965 Tomonaga S. (Japan), Feynman R.F., Schwinger J. (USA). Fundamental work on the creation of quantum electrodynamics (with important consequences for particle physics).

1966 Kastler A. (France). Creation of optical methods for studying Hertz resonances in atoms.

1967 Bethe H. A. (USA). Contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially for discoveries concerning the sources of energy in stars.

1968 Alvarez L. W. (USA). Contributions to particle physics, including the discovery of many resonances using the hydrogen bubble chamber.

1969 Gell-Man M. (USA). Discoveries related to the classification of elementary particles and their interactions (quark hypothesis).

1970 Alven H. (Sweden). Fundamental works and discoveries in magnetohydrodynamics and its applications in various fields of physics.

1970 Neel L. E. F. (France). Fundamental works and discoveries in the field of antiferromagnetism and their application in solid state physics.

1971 Gabor D. (Great Britain). Invention (1947-48) and development of holography.

1972 Bardeen J., Cooper L., Schrieffer J.R. (USA). Creation of a microscopic (quantum) theory of superconductivity.

1973 Jayever A. (USA), Josephson B. (Great Britain), Esaki L. (USA). Research and application of the tunnel effect in semiconductors and superconductors.

1974 Ryle M., Hewish E. (Great Britain). Pioneering work in radioastrophysics (in particular, aperture fusion).

1975 Bohr O., Mottelson B. (Denmark), Rainwater J. (USA). Development of the so-called generalized model of the atomic nucleus.

1976 Richter B., Ting S. (USA). Contribution to the discovery of a new type of heavy elementary particle (gipsy particle).

1977 Anderson F., Van Vleck J. H. (USA), Mott N. (Great Britain). Fundamental research in the field of electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems.

1978 Wilson R.W., Penzias A.A. (USA). Discovery of the microwave cosmic microwave background radiation.

1978 Kapitsa P. L. (USSR). Fundamental discoveries in the field of low temperature physics.

1979 Weinberg (Weinberg) S., Glashow S. (USA), Salam A. (Pakistan). Contribution to the theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions between elementary particles (the so-called electroweak interaction).

1980 Cronin J. W., Fitch W. L. (USA). Discovery of violation of fundamental principles of symmetry in the decay of neutral K-mesons.

1981 Blombergen N., Shavlov A. L. (USA). Development of laser spectroscopy.

1982 Wilson K. (USA). Development of a theory of critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions.

1983 Fowler W. A., Chandrasekhar S. (USA). Works in the field of structure and evolution of stars.

1984 Meer (Van der Meer) S. (Netherlands), Rubbia C. (Italy). Contributions to research in high energy physics and particle theory [discovery of intermediate vector bosons (W, Z0)].

1985 Klitzing K. (Germany). Discovery of the “quantum Hall effect”.

1986 Binnig G. (Germany), Rohrer G. (Switzerland), Ruska E. (Germany). Creation of a scanning tunneling microscope.

1987 Bednorz J. G. (Germany), Müller K. A. (Switzerland). Discovery of new (high temperature) superconducting materials.

1988 Lederman L. M., Steinberger J., Schwartz M. (USA). Proof of the existence of two types of neutrinos.

1989 Demelt H. J. (USA), Paul W. (Germany). Development of a method for confining a single ion in a trap and high-resolution precision spectroscopy.

1990 Kendall G. (USA), Taylor R. (Canada), Friedman J. (USA). Fundamental research important for the development of the quark model.

1991 De Gennes P. J. (France). Advances in the description of molecular ordering in complex condensed systems, especially liquid crystals and polymers.

1992 Charpak J. (France). Contribution to the development of elementary particle detectors.

1993 Taylor J. (Jr.), Hulse R. (USA). For the discovery of double pulsars.

1994 Brockhouse B. (Canada), Schall K. (USA). Technology of materials research by bombardment with neutron beams.

1995 Pearl M., Reines F. (USA). For experimental contributions to particle physics.

1996 Lee D., Osheroff D., Richardson R. (USA). For the discovery of superfluidity of the helium isotope.

1997 Chu S., Phillips W. (USA), Cohen-Tanouji K. (France). For the development of methods for cooling and trapping atoms using laser radiation.

1998 Robert B. Loughlin, Horst L. Stomer, Daniel S. Tsui.

1999 Gerardas Hoovt, Martinas JG Veltman.

2000 Zhores Alferov, Herbert Kroemer, Jack Kilby.

2001 Eric A. Comell, Wolfgang Ketterle, Karl E. Wieman.

2002 Raymond Davis I., Masatoshi Koshiba, Riccardo Giassoni.

2003 Alexey Abrikosov (USA), Vitaly Ginzburg (Russia), Anthony Leggett (Great Britain). The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for important contributions to the theory of superconductivity and superfluidity.

2004 David I. Gross, H. David Politser, Frank Vilseck.

2005 Roy I. Glauber, John L. Hull, Theodore W. Hantsch.

2006 John S. Mather, Georg F. Smoot.

2007 Albert Firth, Peter Grunberg.

With the wording " for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter" Behind this somewhat vague and incomprehensible phrase to the general public lies a whole world of non-trivial and surprising effects even for physicists themselves, in the theoretical discovery of which the laureates played a key role in the 1970s and 1980s. They, of course, were not the only ones who realized the importance of topology in physics at that time. Thus, the Soviet physicist Vadim Berezinsky, a year before Kosterlitz and Thouless, took, in fact, the first important step towards topological phase transitions. There are many other names that could be put next to Haldane's name. But be that as it may, all three laureates are certainly iconic figures in this section of physics.

A Lyrical Introduction to Condensed Matter Physics

Explaining in accessible words the essence and importance of the work for which the physics Nobel 2016 was awarded is not an easy task. Not only are the phenomena themselves complex and, in addition, quantum, but they are also diverse. The prize was awarded not for one specific discovery, but for a whole list of pioneering works that in the 1970–1980s stimulated the development of a new direction in condensed matter physics. In this news I will try to achieve a more modest goal: to explain with a couple of examples essence what a topological phase transition is, and convey the feeling that this is a truly beautiful and important physical effect. The story will be about only one half of the award, the one in which Kosterlitz and Thouless showed themselves. Haldane's work is equally fascinating, but it is even less visual and would require a very long story to explain.

Let's start with a quick introduction to the most phenomenal section of physics - condensed matter physics.

Condensed matter is, in everyday language, when many particles of the same type come together and strongly influence each other. Almost every word here is key. The particles themselves and the law of interaction between them must be of the same type. You can take several different atoms, please, but the main thing is that this fixed set is repeated again and again. There should be a lot of particles; a dozen or two is not yet a condensed medium. And, finally, they must strongly influence each other: push, pull, interfere with each other, maybe exchange something with each other. A rarefied gas is not considered a condensed medium.

The main revelation of condensed matter physics: with such very simple “rules of the game” it revealed an endless wealth of phenomena and effects. Such a variety of phenomena arises not at all because of the variegated composition - the particles are of the same type - but spontaneously, dynamically, as a result collective effects. In fact, since the interaction is strong, there is no point in looking at the movement of each individual atom or electron, because it immediately affects the behavior of all nearest neighbors, and perhaps even distant particles. When you read a book, it “speaks” to you not with a scattering of individual letters, but with a set of words connected to each other; it conveys a thought to you in the form of a “collective effect” of letters. Likewise, condensed matter “speaks” in the language of synchronous collective movements, and not at all of individual particles. And it turns out there is a huge variety of these collective movements.

The current Nobel Prize recognizes the work of theorists to decipher another “language” that condensed matter can “speak” - the language topologically nontrivial excitations(what it is is just below). Quite a few specific physical systems in which such excitations arise have already been found, and the laureates have had a hand in many of them. But the most significant thing here is not specific examples, but the very fact that this also happens in nature.

Many topological phenomena in condensed matter were first invented by theorists and seemed to be just mathematical pranks not relevant to our world. But then experimenters discovered real environments in which these phenomena were observed, and the mathematical prank suddenly gave birth to a new class of materials with exotic properties. The experimental side of this branch of physics is now on the rise, and this rapid development will continue in the future, promising us new materials with programmed properties and devices based on them.

Topological excitations

First, let's clarify the word “topological.” Don't be alarmed that the explanation will sound like pure mathematics; The connection with physics will emerge as we go along.

There is such a branch of mathematics - geometry, the science of figures. If the shape of a figure is smoothly deformed, then, from the point of view of ordinary geometry, the figure itself changes. But figures have common characteristics that, with smooth deformation, without tears or gluing, remain unchanged. This is the topological characteristic of the figure. The most famous example of a topological characteristic is the number of holes in a three-dimensional body. A tea mug and a donut are topologically equivalent, they both have exactly one hole, and therefore one shape can be transformed into another by smooth deformation. A mug and a glass are topologically different because the glass has no holes. To consolidate the material, I suggest you familiarize yourself with the excellent topological classification of women's swimsuits.

So, the conclusion: everything that can be reduced to each other by smooth deformation is considered topologically equivalent. Two figures that cannot be transformed into each other by any smooth changes are considered topologically different.

The second word to explain is “excitement.” In condensed matter physics, excitation is any collective deviation from a "dead" stationary state, that is, from the state with the lowest energy. For example, when a crystal was hit, a sound wave ran through it - this is the vibrational excitation of the crystal lattice. Excitations do not have to be forced; they can arise spontaneously due to non-zero temperature. The usual thermal vibration of a crystal lattice is, in fact, a lot of vibrational excitations (phonons) with different wavelengths superimposed on each other. When the phonon concentration is high, a phase transition occurs and the crystal melts. In general, as soon as we understand in terms of what excitations a given condensed medium should be described, we will have the key to its thermodynamic and other properties.

Now let's connect two words. A sound wave is an example topologically trivial excitement. This sounds clever, but in its physical essence it simply means that the sound can be made as quiet as you like, even to the point of disappearing completely. A loud sound means strong vibrations of atoms, a quiet sound means weak vibrations. The amplitude of vibrations can be smoothly reduced to zero (more precisely, to the quantum limit, but this is unimportant here), and it will still be a sound excitation, a phonon. Pay attention to the key mathematical fact: there is an operation to smoothly change the oscillations to zero - this is simply a decrease in amplitude. This is precisely what means that the phonon is a topologically trivial perturbation.

And now the richness of condensed matter is turned on. In some systems there are excitations that cannot be smoothly reduced to zero. It's not physically impossible, but fundamentally - the form doesn't allow it. There is simply no such everywhere smooth operation that transfers a system with excitation to a system with the lowest energy. The excitation in its form is topologically different from the same phonons.

See how it turns out. Let's consider a simple system (it's called the XY-model) - an ordinary square lattice, at the nodes of which there are particles with their own spin, which can be oriented in any way in this plane. We will depict the backs with arrows; The orientation of the arrow is arbitrary, but the length is fixed. We will also assume that the spins of neighboring particles interact with each other in such a way that the most energetically favorable configuration is when all spins at all nodes point in the same direction, as in a ferromagnet. This configuration is shown in Fig. 2, left. Spin waves can run along it - small wave-like deviations of spins from strict ordering (Fig. 2, right). But these are all ordinary, topologically trivial excitations.

Now look at Fig. 3. Shown here are two disturbances of unusual shape: a vortex and an antivortex. Mentally select a point in the picture and walk your gaze along a circular path counterclockwise around the center, paying attention to what happens to the arrows. You will see that the arrow of the vortex turns in the same direction, counterclockwise, and that of the antivortex - in the opposite direction, clockwise. Now do the same in the ground state of the system (the arrow is generally motionless) and in the state with a spin wave (where the arrow oscillates slightly around the average value). You can also imagine deformed versions of these pictures, say a spin wave in a load towards a vortex: there the arrow will also make a full revolution, wobbling slightly.

After these exercises, it becomes clear that all possible excitations are divided into fundamentally different classes: whether the arrow makes a full revolution when going around the center or not, and if it does, then in which direction. These situations have different topologies. No smooth changes can turn a vortex into an ordinary wave: if you turn the arrows, then abruptly, across the entire lattice at once and at a large angle at once. The vortex, as well as the anti-vortex, topologically protected: they, unlike a sound wave, cannot simply dissolve.

Last important point. A vortex is topologically different from a simple wave and from an antivortex only if the arrows lie strictly in the plane of the figure. If we are allowed to bring them into the third dimension, then the vortex can be smoothly eliminated. The topological classification of excitations radically depends on the dimension of the system!

Topological phase transitions

These purely geometric considerations have a very tangible physical consequence. The energy of an ordinary vibration, the same phonon, can be arbitrarily small. Therefore, at any arbitrarily low temperature, these oscillations spontaneously arise and affect the thermodynamic properties of the medium. The energy of a topologically protected excitation, a vortex, cannot be below a certain limit. Therefore, at low temperatures, individual vortices do not arise, and therefore do not affect the thermodynamic properties of the system - at least, this was thought until the early 1970s.

Meanwhile, in the 1960s, through the efforts of many theorists, the problem with understanding what was happening in the XY model from a physical point of view was revealed. In the usual three-dimensional case, everything is simple and intuitive. At low temperatures the system looks ordered, as in Fig. 2. If you take two arbitrary lattice nodes, even very distant ones, then the spins in them will slightly oscillate around the same direction. This is, relatively speaking, a spin crystal. At high temperatures, spins “melt”: two distant lattice sites are no longer correlated with each other. There is a clear phase transition temperature between the two states. If you set the temperature exactly to this value, then the system will be in a special critical state, when the correlations still exist, but gradually, in a power-law manner, decrease with distance.

In a two-dimensional lattice at high temperatures there is also a disordered state. But at low temperatures everything looked very, very strange. A strict theorem was proven (see Mermin-Wagner theorem) that there is no crystalline order in the two-dimensional version. Careful calculations showed that it is not that it is not there at all, it simply decreases with distance according to a power law - exactly like in a critical state. But if in the three-dimensional case the critical state was only at one temperature, then here the critical state occupies the entire low-temperature region. It turns out that in the two-dimensional case some other excitations come into play that do not exist in the three-dimensional version (Fig. 4)!

The Nobel Committee's accompanying materials describe several examples of topological phenomena in various quantum systems, as well as recent experimental work to realize them and prospects for the future. This story ends with a quote from Haldane's 1988 article. In it, as if making excuses, he says: “ Although the specific model presented here is unlikely to be physically realizable, nevertheless...". 25 years later magazine Nature publishes , which reports an experimental implementation of Haldane's model. Perhaps topologically nontrivial phenomena in condensed matter are one of the most striking confirmations of the unspoken motto of condensed matter physics: in a suitable system we will embody any self-consistent theoretical idea, no matter how exotic it may seem.

NOBEL PRIZES

The Nobel Prizes are international prizes named after their founder, the Swedish chemical engineer A. B. Nobel. Awarded annually (since 1901) for outstanding work in the field of physics, chemistry, medicine and physiology, economics (since 1969), for literary works, and for activities to strengthen peace. The Nobel Prizes are awarded to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Stockholm (for physics, chemistry, economics), the Royal Karolinska Medical-Surgical Institute in Stockholm (for physiology and medicine) and the Swedish Academy in Stockholm (for literature); In Norway, the Nobel Committee of Parliament awards the Nobel Peace Prizes. Nobel Prizes are not awarded twice or posthumously.

ALFEROV Zhores Ivanovich(born March 15, 1930, Vitebsk, Belarusian SSR, USSR) - Soviet and Russian physicist, winner of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for the development of semiconductor heterostructures and the creation of fast opto- and microelectronic components, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, honorary member of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan (since 2004), foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. His research played a major role in computer science. Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, he was the initiator of the establishment of the Global Energy Prize in 2002, and until 2006 he headed the International Committee for its award. He is the rector-organizer of the new Academic University.

(1894-1984), Russian physicist, one of the founders of low temperature physics and the physics of strong magnetic fields, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1939), twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1945, 1974). In 1921-34 on a scientific trip to Great Britain. Organizer and first director (1935-46 and since 1955) of the Institute of Physical Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Discovered the superfluidity of liquid helium (1938). He developed a method for liquefying air using a turboexpander, a new type of powerful ultra-high-frequency generator. He discovered that a high-frequency discharge in dense gases produces a stable plasma cord with an electron temperature of 105-106 K. USSR State Prize (1941, 1943), Nobel Prize (1978). Gold medal named after Lomonosov of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1959).

(b. 1922), Russian physicist, one of the founders of quantum electronics, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1966), twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1969, 1982). Graduated from the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute (1950). Works on semiconductor lasers, the theory of high-power pulses of solid-state lasers, quantum frequency standards, and the interaction of high-power laser radiation with matter. Discovered the principle of generation and amplification of radiation by quantum systems. Developed the physical basis of frequency standards. Author of a number of ideas in the field of semiconductor quantum generators. He studied the formation and amplification of powerful light pulses, the interaction of powerful light radiation with matter. Invented a laser method for heating plasma for thermonuclear fusion. Author of a series of studies on powerful gas quantum generators. He proposed a number of ideas for the use of lasers in optoelectronics. Created (together with A.M. Prokhorov) the first quantum generator using a beam of ammonia molecules - a maser (1954). He proposed a method for creating three-level nonequilibrium quantum systems (1955), as well as the use of a laser in thermonuclear fusion (1961). Chairman of the Board of the All-Union Society "Knowledge" in 1978-90. Lenin Prize (1959), USSR State Prize (1989), Nobel Prize (1964, together with Prokhorov and C. Townes). Gold medal named after. M. V. Lomonosov (1990). Gold medal named after. A. Volta (1977).

PROKHOROV Alexander Mikhailovich(July 11, 1916, Atherton, Queensland, Australia - January 8, 2002, Moscow) - an outstanding Soviet physicist, one of the founders of the most important area of ​​modern physics - quantum electronics, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1964 (together with Nikolai Basov and Charles Townes ), one of the inventors of laser technology.

Prokhorov's scientific works are devoted to radiophysics, accelerator physics, radio spectroscopy, quantum electronics and its applications, and nonlinear optics. In his first works, he studied the propagation of radio waves along the earth's surface and in the ionosphere. After the war, he actively began developing methods for stabilizing the frequency of radio generators, which formed the basis of his Ph.D. thesis. He proposed a new regime for generating millimeter waves in a synchrotron, established their coherent nature, and based on the results of this work he defended his doctoral dissertation (1951).

While developing quantum frequency standards, Prokhorov, together with N. G. Basov, formulated the basic principles of quantum amplification and generation (1953), which was implemented during the creation of the first quantum generator (maser) using ammonia (1954). In 1955, they proposed a three-level scheme for creating an inverse population of levels, which has found wide application in masers and lasers. The next few years were devoted to work on paramagnetic amplifiers in the microwave range, in which it was proposed to use a number of active crystals, such as ruby, a detailed study of the properties of which turned out to be extremely useful in creating the ruby ​​laser. In 1958, Prokhorov proposed using an open resonator to create quantum generators. For their seminal work in the field of quantum electronics, which led to the creation of the laser and maser, Prokhorov and N. G. Basov were awarded the Lenin Prize in 1959, and in 1964, together with C. H. Townes, the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Since 1960, Prokhorov has created a number of lasers of various types: a laser based on two-quantum transitions (1963), a number of continuous lasers and lasers in the IR region, a powerful gas-dynamic laser (1966). He investigated nonlinear effects that arise during the propagation of laser radiation in matter: the multifocal structure of wave beams in a nonlinear medium, the propagation of optical solitons in light guides, excitation and dissociation of molecules under the influence of IR radiation, laser generation of ultrasound, control of the properties of solids and laser plasma under the influence of light beams. These developments have found application not only for the industrial production of lasers, but also for the creation of deep space communication systems, laser thermonuclear fusion, fiber-optic communication lines and many others.

(1908-68), Russian theoretical physicist, founder of a scientific school, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1946), Hero of Socialist Labor (1954). Works in many areas of physics: magnetism; superfluidity and superconductivity; physics of solids, atomic nuclei and elementary particles, plasma physics; quantum electrodynamics; astrophysics, etc. Author of a classic course in theoretical physics (together with E.M. Lifshitz). Lenin Prize (1962), USSR State Prize (1946, 1949, 1953), Nobel Prize (1962).

(1904-90), Russian physicist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1970), Hero of Socialist Labor (1984). Experimentally discovered a new optical phenomenon (Cherenkov-Vavilov radiation). Works on cosmic rays and accelerators. USSR State Prize (1946, 1952, 1977), Nobel Prize (1958, together with I. E. Tamm and I. M. Frank).

Russian physicist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1968). Graduated from Moscow University (1930). A student of S.I. Vavilov, in whose laboratory he began working while still a student, studying the quenching of luminescence in liquids.

After graduating from the university, he worked at the State Optical Institute (1930-34), in the laboratory of A. N. Terenin, studying photochemical reactions using optical methods. In 1934, at the invitation of S.I. Vavilov, he moved to the Physics Institute named after. P. N. Lebedev Academy of Sciences of the USSR (FIAN), where he worked until 1978 (from 1941 head of department, from 1947 - laboratory). In the early 30s. On the initiative of S.I. Vavilov, he began to study the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, in particular, the phenomenon of the birth of electron-positron pairs by gamma quanta, discovered shortly before. In 1937, together with I. E. Tamm, he performed a classic work on explaining the Vavilov-Cherenkov effect. During the war years, when the Lebedev Physical Institute was evacuated to Kazan, I.M. Frank was engaged in research into the applied significance of this phenomenon, and in the mid-forties he was intensively involved in work related to the need to solve the atomic problem in the shortest possible time. In 1946 he organized the Laboratory of the Atomic Nucleus of the Lebedev Physical Institute. At this time, Frank was the organizer and director of the Laboratory of Neutron Physics of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (since 1947), head of the Laboratory of the Institute of Nuclear Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences, professor at Moscow University (since 1940) and head. laboratory of radioactive radiation of the Research Physical Institute of Moscow State University (1946-1956).

Main works in the field of optics, neutron and low energy nuclear physics. He developed the theory of Cherenkov-Vavilov radiation based on classical electrodynamics, showing that the source of this radiation is electrons moving at a speed greater than the phase speed of light (1937, together with I.E. Tamm). Investigated the features of this radiation.

Constructed a theory of the Doppler effect in a medium, taking into account its refractive properties and dispersion (1942). Constructed a theory of the anomalous Doppler effect in the case of a superluminal source speed (1947, together with V.L. Ginzburg). Predicted transition radiation that occurs when a moving charge passes a flat interface between two media (1946, together with V.L. Ginzburg). He studied the formation of pairs by gamma rays in krypton and nitrogen, and obtained the most complete and correct comparison of theory and experiment (1938, together with L.V. Groshev). In the mid-40s. carried out extensive theoretical and experimental studies of neutron multiplication in heterogeneous uranium-graphite systems. Developed a pulsed method for studying the diffusion of thermal neutrons.

Discovered the dependence of the average diffusion coefficient on a geometric parameter (diffusion cooling effect) (1954). Developed a new method for neutron spectroscopy.

He initiated the study of short-lived quasi-stationary states and nuclear fission under the influence of mesons and high-energy particles. He performed a number of experiments to study reactions on light nuclei in which neutrons are emitted, the interaction of fast neutrons with tritium, lithium and uranium nuclei, and the fission process. He took part in the construction and launch of pulsed fast neutron reactors IBR-1 (1960) and IBR-2 (1981). Created a school of physicists. Nobel Prize (1958). State Prizes of the USSR (1946, 1954,1971). Gold medal of S. I. Vavilov (1980).

(1895-1971), Russian theoretical physicist, founder of a scientific school, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1953), Hero of Socialist Labor (1953). Works on quantum theory, nuclear physics (theory of exchange interactions), radiation theory, solid state physics, elementary particle physics. One of the authors of the Cherenkov-Vavilov radiation theory. In 1950 he proposed (together with A.D. Sakharov) to use heated plasma placed in a magnetic field to obtain a controlled thermonuclear reaction. Author of the textbook “Fundamentals of Electricity Theory”. USSR State Prize (1946, 1953). Nobel Prize (1958, together with I.M. Frank and P.A. Cherenkov). Gold medal named after. Lomonosov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1968).

NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN PHYSICS

1901 Roentgen V.K. (Germany) Discovery of “x” rays (X-rays)

1902 Zeeman P., Lorenz H. A. (Netherlands) Study of the splitting of spectral emission lines of atoms when placing a radiation source in a magnetic field

1903 Becquerel A. A. (France) Discovery of natural radioactivity

1903 Curie P., Skłodowska-Curie M. (France) Study of the phenomenon of radioactivity discovered by A. A. Becquerel

1904 Strett [Lord Rayleigh (Reilly)] J.W. (Great Britain) Discovery of argon

1905 Lenard F. E. A. (Germany) Cathode ray research

1906 Thomson J. J. (Great Britain) Study of electrical conductivity of gases

1907 Michelson A. A. (USA) Creation of high-precision optical instruments; spectroscopic and metrological studies

1908 Lipman G. (France) Discovery of color photography

1909 Braun K. F. (Germany), Marconi G. (Italy) Work in the field of wireless telegraphy

1910 Waals (van der Waals) J. D. (Netherlands) Studies of the equation of state of gases and liquids

1911 Win W. (Germany) Discoveries in the field of thermal radiation

1912 Dalen N. G. (Sweden) Invention of a device for automatically igniting and extinguishing beacons and luminous buoys

1913 Kamerlingh-Onnes H. (Netherlands) Study of the properties of matter at low temperatures and production of liquid helium

1914 Laue M. von (Germany) Discovery of X-ray diffraction by crystals

1915 Bragg W. G., Bragg W. L. (Great Britain) Studying the structure of crystals using X-rays

1916 Not awarded

1917 Barkla Ch. (Great Britain) Discovery of the characteristic X-ray emission of elements

1918 Planck M. K. (Germany) Merits in the field of development of physics and the discovery of discreteness of radiation energy (quantum of action)

1919 Stark J. (Germany) Discovery of the Doppler effect in channel beams and splitting of spectral lines in electric fields

1920 Guillaume (Guillaume) S. E. (Switzerland) Creation of iron-nickel alloys for metrological purposes

1921 Einstein A. (Germany) Contributions to theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect

1922 Bohr N. H. D. (Denmark) Merits in the field of studying the structure of the atom and the radiation emitted by it

1923 Milliken R. E. (USA) Work on the determination of the elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect

1924 Sigban K. M. (Sweden) Contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy

1925 Hertz G., Frank J. (Germany) Discovery of the laws of collision of an electron with an atom

1926 Perrin J. B. (France) Works on the discrete nature of matter, in particular for the discovery of sedimentation equilibrium

1927 Wilson C. T. R. (Great Britain) A method for visually observing the trajectories of electrically charged particles using vapor condensation

1927 Compton A.H. (USA) Discovery of changes in the wavelength of X-rays, scattering by free electrons (Compton effect)

1928 Richardson O. W. (Great Britain) Study of thermionic emission (dependence of emission current on temperature - Richardson formula)

1929 Broglie L. de (France) Discovery of the wave nature of the electron

1930 Raman C.V. (India) Work on light scattering and the discovery of Raman scattering (Raman effect)

1931 Not awarded

1932 Heisenberg V.K. (Germany) Participation in the creation of quantum mechanics and its application to the prediction of two states of the hydrogen molecule (ortho- and parahydrogen)

1933 Dirac P. A. M. (Great Britain), Schrödinger E. (Austria) The discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory, that is, the creation of the equations of quantum mechanics

1934 Not awarded

1935 Chadwick J. (Great Britain) Discovery of the neutron

1936 Anderson K. D. (USA) Discovery of the positron in cosmic rays

1936 Hess V.F. (Austria) Discovery of cosmic rays

1937 Davisson K. J. (USA), Thomson J. P. (Great Britain) Experimental discovery of electron diffraction in crystals

1938 Fermi E. (Italy) Evidence of the existence of new radioactive elements obtained by irradiation with neutrons, and the related discovery of nuclear reactions caused by slow neutrons

1939 Lawrence E. O. (USA) Invention and creation of the cyclotron

1940-42 Not awarded

1943 Stern O. (USA) Contribution to the development of the molecular beam method and the discovery and measurement of the magnetic moment of the proton

1944 Rabi I. A. (USA) Resonance method for measuring the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei

1945 Pauli W. (Switzerland) Discovery of the exclusion principle (Pauli principle)

1946 Bridgman P. W. (USA) Discoveries in the field of high pressure physics

1947 Appleton E. W. (Great Britain) Study of the physics of the upper atmosphere, discovery of a layer of the atmosphere that reflects radio waves (Appleton layer)

1948 Blackett P. M. S. (Great Britain) Improvements to the cloud chamber method and resulting discoveries in nuclear and cosmic ray physics

1949 Yukawa H. (Japan) Prediction of the existence of mesons based on theoretical work on nuclear forces

1950 Powell S. F. (Great Britain) Development of a photographic method for studying nuclear processes and discovery of -mesons based on this method

1951 Cockcroft J.D., Walton E.T.S. (Great Britain) Studies of transformations of atomic nuclei using artificially accelerated particles

1952 Bloch F., Purcell E. M. (USA) Development of new methods for accurately measuring the magnetic moments of atomic nuclei and related discoveries

1953 Zernike F. (Netherlands) Creation of the phase-contrast method, invention of the phase-contrast microscope

1954 Born M. (Germany) Fundamental research in quantum mechanics, statistical interpretation of the wave function

1954 Bothe W. (Germany) Development of a method for recording coincidences (the act of emission of a radiation quantum and an electron during the scattering of an X-ray quantum on hydrogen)

1955 Kush P. (USA) Accurate determination of the magnetic moment of an electron

1955 Lamb W. Yu. (USA) Discovery in the field of fine structure of hydrogen spectra

1956 Bardin J., Brattain U., Shockley W. B. (USA) Research on semiconductors and discovery of the transistor effect

1957 Li (Li Zongdao), Yang (Yang Zhenning) (USA) Study of the so-called conservation laws (the discovery of parity nonconservation in weak interactions), which led to important discoveries in particle physics

1958 Tamm I. E., Frank I. M., Cherenkov P. A. (USSR) Discovery and creation of the theory of the Cherenkov effect

1959 Segre E., Chamberlain O. (USA) Discovery of the antiproton

1960 Glaser D. A. (USA) Invention of the bubble chamber

1961 Mossbauer R. L. (Germany) Research and discovery of resonant absorption of gamma radiation in solids (Mossbauer effect)

1961 Hofstadter R. (USA) Studies of electron scattering on atomic nuclei and related discoveries in the field of nucleon structure

1962 Landau L. D. (USSR) Theory of condensed matter (especially liquid helium)

1963 Wigner Yu. P. (USA) Contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles

1963 Geppert-Mayer M. (USA), Jensen J. H. D. (Germany) Discovery of the shell structure of the atomic nucleus

1964 Basov N. G., Prokhorov A. M. (USSR), Townes C. H. (USA) Work in the field of quantum electronics, leading to the creation of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle

1965 Tomonaga S. (Japan), Feynman R. F., Schwinger J. (USA) Fundamental work on the creation of quantum electrodynamics (with important consequences for particle physics)

1966 Kastler A. (France) Creation of optical methods for studying Hertz resonances in atoms

1967 Bethe H. A. (USA) Contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially for discoveries concerning the sources of energy in stars

1968 Alvarez L. W. (USA) Contributions to particle physics, including the discovery of many resonances using the hydrogen bubble chamber

1969 Gell-Man M. (USA) Discoveries related to the classification of elementary particles and their interactions (quark hypothesis)

1970 Alven H. (Sweden) Fundamental works and discoveries in magnetohydrodynamics and its applications in various fields of physics

1970 Neel L. E. F. (France) Fundamental works and discoveries in the field of antiferromagnetism and their application in solid state physics

1971 Gabor D. (Great Britain) Invention (1947-48) and development of holography

1972 Bardeen J., Cooper L., Schrieffer J. R. (USA) Creation of a microscopic (quantum) theory of superconductivity

1973 Jayever A. (USA), Josephson B. (Great Britain), Esaki L. (USA) Research and application of the tunnel effect in semiconductors and superconductors

1974 Ryle M., Huish E. (Great Britain) Pioneering work in radioastrophysics (in particular, aperture fusion)

1975 Bor O., Mottelson B. (Denmark), Rainwater J. (USA) Development of the so-called generalized model of the atomic nucleus

1976 Richter B., Ting S. (USA) Contribution to the discovery of a new type of heavy elementary particle (gipsy particle)

1977 Anderson F., Van Vleck J. H. (USA), Mott N. (Great Britain) Fundamental research in the field of electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems

1978 Wilson R.V., Penzias A.A. (USA) Discovery of the microwave background radiation

1978 Kapitsa P. L. (USSR) Fundamental discoveries in the field of low temperature physics

1979 Weinberg (Weinberg) S., Glashow S. (USA), Salam A. (Pakistan) Contribution to the theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions between elementary particles (the so-called electroweak interaction)

1980 Cronin J. W., Fitch V. L. (USA) Discovery of violation of fundamental principles of symmetry in the decay of neutral K-mesons

1981 Blombergen N., Shavlov A. L. (USA) Development of laser spectroscopy

1982 Wilson K. (USA) Development of the theory of critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions

1983 Fowler W. A., Chandrasekhar S. (USA) Works in the field of structure and evolution of stars

1984 Meer (van der Meer) S. (Netherlands), Rubbia C. (Italy) Contributions to research in high energy physics and particle theory [discovery of intermediate vector bosons (W, Z0)]

1985 Klitzing K. (Germany) Discovery of the “quantum Hall effect”

1986 Binnig G. (Germany), Rohrer G. (Switzerland), Ruska E. (Germany) Creation of a scanning tunneling microscope

1987 Bednortz J. G. (Germany), Muller K. A. (Switzerland) Discovery of new (high temperature) superconducting materials

1988 Lederman L. M., Steinberger J., Schwartz M. (USA) Proof of the existence of two types of neutrinos

1989 Demelt H. J. (USA), Paul W. (Germany) Development of single ion trapping and precision high-resolution spectroscopy

1990 Kendall G. (USA), Taylor R. (Canada), Friedman J. (USA) Fundamental research important for the development of the quark model

1991 De Gennes P. J. (France) Advances in the description of molecular ordering in complex condensed systems, especially liquid crystals and polymers

1992 Charpak J. (France) Contribution to the development of particle detectors

1993 Taylor J. (Jr.), Hulse R. (USA) For the discovery of double pulsars

1994 Brockhouse B. (Canada), Shull K. (USA) Technology of materials research by bombardment with neutron beams

1995 Pearl M., Reines F. (USA) For experimental contributions to particle physics

1996 Lee D., Osheroff D., Richardson R. (USA) For the discovery of superfluidity of the helium isotope

1997 Chu S., Phillips W. (USA), Cohen-Tanouji K. (France) For the development of methods for cooling and trapping atoms using laser radiation.

1998 Robert Betts Laughlin(eng. Robert Betts Laughlin; November 1, 1950, Visalia, USA) - professor of physics and applied physics at Stanford University, winner of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1998, together with H. Stoermer and D. Tsui, “for the discovery of a new form quantum liquid with excitations having a fractional electric charge.”

1998 Horst Liu?dvig Ste?rmer(German: Horst Ludwig St?rmer; born April 6, 1949, Frankfurt am Main) - German physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 (jointly with Robert Laughlin and Daniel Tsui) “for the discovery of a new form of quantum liquid with excitations having a fractional electric charge.”

1998 Daniel Chi Tsui(English: Daniel Chee Tsui, pinyin Cu? Q?, pal. Cui Qi, born February 28, 1939, Henan Province, China) - American physicist of Chinese origin. He was engaged in research in the field of electrical properties of thin films, microstructure of semiconductors and solid state physics. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 (shared with Robert Laughlin and Horst Stoermer) "for the discovery of a new form of quantum liquid with excitations having a fractional electric charge."

1999 Gerard 't Hooft(Dutch Gerardus (Gerard) "t Hooft, born July 5, 1946, Helder, the Netherlands), professor at Utrecht University (Netherlands), winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1999 (together with Martinus Veltman). "t Hooft with his teacher Martinus Veltman developed a theory that helped clarify the quantum structure of electroweak interactions. This theory was created in the 1960s by Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg, who proposed that the weak and electromagnetic interactions are manifestations of a single electroweak force. But applying the theory to calculate the particle properties it predicted was unsuccessful. The mathematical methods developed by 't Hooft and Veltman made it possible to predict some effects of the electroweak interaction and made it possible to estimate the masses W and Z of the intermediate vector bosons predicted by the theory. The obtained values ​​are in good agreement with the experimental values. Using the method of Veltman and 't Hooft, the mass of the top quark was also calculated, experimentally discovered in 1995 at the National Laboratory. E. Fermi (Fermilab, USA).

1999 Martinus Veltman(born June 27, 1931, Waalwijk, the Netherlands) is a Dutch physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1999 (jointly with Gerard ’t Hooft). Veltman worked with his student, Gerard 't Hooft, on a mathematical formulation of gauge theories - renormalization theory. In 1977, he was able to predict the mass of the top quark, which served as an important step for its discovery in 1995. In 1999, Veltman, together with Gerard 't Hooft, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions.” .

2000 Zhores Ivanovich Alferov(born March 15, 1930, Vitebsk, Belarusian SSR, USSR) - Soviet and Russian physicist, laureate of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for the development of semiconductor heterostructures and the creation of fast opto- and microelectronic components, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, honorary member of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan (with 2004), foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. His research played a major role in computer science. Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, he was the initiator of the establishment of the Global Energy Prize in 2002, and until 2006 he headed the International Committee for its award. He is the rector-organizer of the new Academic University.

2000 Herbert Kroemer(German Herbert Kr?mer; born August 25, 1928, Weimar, Germany) - German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate in physics. Half of the prize for 2000, together with Zhores Alferov, “for the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-frequency and optoelectronics.” The second half of the prize was awarded to Jack Kilby "for his contribution to the invention of integrated circuits."

2000 Jack Kilby(eng. Jack St. Clair Kilby, November 8, 1923, Jefferson City - June 20, 2005, Dallas) - American scientist. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his invention of the integrated circuit in 1958 while working for Texas Instruments (TI). He is also the inventor of the pocket calculator and the thermal printer (1967).