As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:
know
- the main factors that changed the status of the traveler in Europe;
- the fundamental difference between the stagecoach as a means of mass transportation;
- service characteristics of roadside hospitality establishments;
be able to
Argument for the motivational periodization of the history of tourism;
own
The skill of comparative historical analysis of the legal status of the traveler.
Factors of change in the status of travel and services in modern times
The new era, which historians count from the 16th–17th centuries, is fundamentally different from the Middle Ages in all parameters of political, economic, and cultural life. From the point of view of the history of tourism and hospitality, the most important are the processes of the emergence of new means of transportation, expansion of communications and new ideas of people about comfort. Several major factors of modern times led to radical changes in these areas.
Firstly, The improvement of the compass made long-distance sea travel across the oceans possible, which led to the discovery of America by X. Columbus and A. Vespucci, India and the entire Asian coast as a result of Vasco da Gama's voyage, and Magellan's voyage around the world. The earth truly “became round”; the world known to Europeans expanded to its maximum extent. This introduced Europeans to the customs and culture of different peoples, and also made them realize the importance of communications, trade, and roads. The general mobility of the population has increased; traveling even to distant lands is no longer an ordeal of the unknown.
Secondly, key scientific discoveries were made by astronomers and geographers, in particular N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, T. Brahe, I. Kepler, who described the real picture of the universe, the solar system. C. Linnaeus created an atlas of animals and plants. Scientific discoveries became a new source of knowledge, displacing religious ideas about the world. In connection with the development of science, the value of secular education has increased; there is not a single European country left that does not have its own university. The thesis about the benefits of travel from an educational point of view has become firmly established in the minds of Europeans. The knowledge gained along the way was valued so highly that every traveler was in a hurry to publish his travel notes. A whole literature of travel arose.
Third, The European economy received a powerful boost when the “golden flow” from the New World began, which lasted almost a century and a half. There was a real revolution in prices, which jumped four to five times in Europe; agricultural products became profitable for the first time, which meant a huge expansion of the market. Initially, the leaders of economic life in Europe were those countries that could control the flow of gold and slaves, i.e. those who had a strong fleet: Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, England. However, England and the Netherlands managed to use overseas gold to modernize their own economies, soon pushing Spain and Portugal into the background. The economic breakthrough in Europe caused a sharp increase in living standards, demands for comfort, and the concept of service arose.
Fourthly, New and new technical inventions gave a gigantic acceleration to human civilization. The screw, the vertical mill wheel, the coal wheel, the spoked wheel, and the shock absorbers of the cart radically changed the means of transportation. Technical advances caused an increase in quality of life standards, a craving for comfort among the upper classes, and the possibility of long trips for pleasure. Cities were built and decorated, bridges and roads, cathedrals and palaces were erected. Fairs that were held in Europe from the 7th century. (Champagne), became widespread and longer lasting, which led to the emergence of the form of world exhibitions. There are more and more places and attractions in the world that are interesting from a tourism point of view.
All these factors caused rapid growth of cities, roads, communications, business and trade in Europe. The trading cities of Venice, Florence, Paris, London had up to 100 thousand inhabitants, and at the end of the 18th century. London became the first city with a population of one million. The quality of life grew rapidly, standards of luxury rose, and a new class of free citizens was formed. The nobility assimilated new needs: luxury interiors, fashionable and prestigious clothing, the art of cooking, jewelry, and enjoyed the theater, balls and other entertainment. Potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers, corn, tropical fruits, as well as chocolate, tea and coffee appeared on the European table.
After the 16th century There were no more major plague epidemics in Europe, human contact became more frequent, and the population increased. Renaissance era XIV–XVI centuries. raised an active, inquisitive, active person; created secular literature and art. People began to have leisure time - time that could be spent on travel or entertainment. The previous types of “traveling person” - pilgrim, merchant and warrior - are supplemented by secular people who set off on a journey for knowledge, acquaintance with the culture of other peoples, for health and sports. The work of one of the most famous thinkers of the Renaissance, Michel Montaigne, "Essays" formulates the foundations of a new worldview. The diversity of the world requires religious tolerance and the desire for mutual understanding and dialogue between different cultures. Secular travelers, unlike pilgrims, go for new experiences, expanding their horizons, striving for their own improvement. The requirements for travel comfort and safety become important. Traveling allows you to reevaluate your life, “strengthen your soul,” and relieves you of vanity and pettiness.
The decisive invention that determined the transition to modern times was the Gutenberg printing press, created in 1445. The possibility of replication and the radical reduction in the cost of printing had the most revolutionary consequences. The book has gone from being a luxury item to being an everyday item. There was an opportunity for the existence of the daily press, newspapers, magazines, leaflets, and advertising. The spread of printing contributed to the expansion of knowledge about the world and motivated more and more travelers to go to other countries.
The development of distant territories and the improvement of sea vessels made it possible to establish permanent sea communications along the routes “London - Venice and Mediterranean cities”, “Europe - India”, “Europe - South America”. All coastal cities of Europe from the Baltic to the Mediterranean Sea were connected with each other. The route across the Atlantic became increasingly important. Five mastered routes connected the Old and New Worlds. The romance of travel across the Atlantic was still fueled by the glow of Indian gold, pirate stories, the slave trade, fortune and danger. The commercial version of travel was established by the West India and East India companies, the first and richest (40% of the world's merchant fleet) of which (East India) arose in 1602 in Amsterdam, and the longest lasting - almost until the end of the 19th century. - became the British East India Company.
The rise of colonialism, which followed the discovery of other lands by Europeans, also influenced the motivation for travel. In the colony it was possible to earn capital, strengthen character, gain life experience, and make a name for oneself. The presence of colonies in leading European countries stimulated the development of transport, communications, the formation of a system of hospitality and service, and also expanded the geography and motivation of travel undertaken. In modern times, the contingent of travelers also changes. In addition to those who traveled on business, state or trade, or on pilgrimage, there were those who traveled for the purpose of education. The usual route that completed the education of a young Englishman was across the continent: London - Paris - Genoa - Milan - Florence - Rome - Switzerland - Germany - the Netherlands - London. With the weakening of religious motives, the individual nature and educational focus of travel increased. In the 17th century Many thinkers and philosophers spoke about the benefits of the latter. The founder of pedagogy, Jan Amos Komensky, insisted on mandatory excursions for teaching schoolchildren.
Textbook: chapters 4, 8::: History of the Middle Ages: Early modern times
Chapter 4.
Great geographical discoveries of the mid-15th - mid-17th centuries. were associated with the process of primitive capital accumulation in Europe. The development of new trade routes and countries, the robbery of newly discovered lands contributed to the development of this process and marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system of capitalism and the formation of the world market.
The pioneers of the Great Geographical Discoveries began in the 15th century. countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal. Having conquered in the 13th century. their territory from the Arabs, the Portuguese in the XIV-XV centuries. continued wars with the Arabs in North Africa, during which a significant fleet was created.
The first stage of Portuguese geographical discoveries (1418-1460) is associated with the activities of Prince Enrique the Navigator, a talented organizer of sea expeditions in which not only nobles, but also merchants participated. Back in the 20-30s of the 15th century. The Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira, the Canary and Azores islands, and advanced far to the south along the western coast of Africa. Rounding Cape Bojador, they reached the coast of Guinea (1434) and the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1462 - Sierra Leone. In 1471, they explored the coast of Ghana, where they found rich gold deposits. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa in 1486 by Bartolomeo Dias created a real opportunity to prepare an expedition to India.
Long sea voyages became possible in the second half of the 15th century. as a result of significant advances in science and technology. Until the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese were ahead of other countries not only in the number of discoveries. The knowledge they acquired during their travels gave sailors from many countries new valuable information about sea currents, ebbs and flows, and the direction of winds. Mapping new lands pushed the development of cartography. Portuguese maps were highly accurate and contained data on areas of the world previously unknown to Europeans. In many countries, reports on Portuguese sea expeditions and Portuguese navigation manuals were published and republished. Portuguese cartographers worked in many countries from Europe. At the beginning of the 16th century. The first maps appeared on which the lines of the tropics and the equator and the latitude scale were plotted.
Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the Italian scientist, astronomer and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli drew up a map of the world on which the shores of Asia were marked on the western coast of the Atlantic Ocean: he believed that it was possible to reach India, an experience west of the shores of Europe. The Italian scientist incorrectly imagined the extent of the Earth along the equator, making an error of 12 thousand km. Subsequently they said that this was a great mistake that led to a great discovery.
By the end of the 15th century. Navigation instruments (compass and astrolabe) were significantly improved, making it possible to more accurately determine the position of a ship on the open sea than before. A new type of vessel appeared - a caravel, which, thanks to a system of sails, could sail both with and against the wind, reaching a speed of 22 km per hour. The ship had a small crew (1/10 of the crew of a rowing galley) and could take on board enough food and fresh water for a long voyage.
At the end of the 15th century. The Spaniards were also looking for new trade routes. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella. Little is known about the previous period of Columbus's life. He was born in Genoa into a weaver's family, in his youth he took part in sea voyages, was an experienced pilot and captain, read a lot, and knew astronomy and geography well. Columbus proposed his project, approved by Toscanelli, to the Spanish monarchs - to reach the shores of India, sailing west across the Atlantic. Previously, Columbus had in vain proposed his plan to the Portuguese king, and then to the English and French monarchs, but was refused. By this time, the Portuguese were already close to opening the route to India through Africa, which predetermined the refusal of the Portuguese king Alfonso V. France and England at that time did not have a sufficient fleet to equip the expedition.
In Spain, the situation was more favorable for the implementation of Columbus's plans. After the reconquest of Granada in 1492 and the end of the last war with the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had free land to sell, and revenues from taxes on trade and industry were negligible. A huge number of nobles (hidalgos) were left without a means of subsistence. Brought up by centuries of the Reconquista, they despised all economic activity - the only source of income for most of them was war. Without losing their desire to quickly get rich, the Spanish hidalgos were ready to rush into new campaigns of conquest. The crown was interested in sending this restless noble freemen away from Spain, overseas, into unknown lands. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. Due to its geographical location and long struggle with the Arabs, Spain in the 15th century. found itself cut off from trade along the Mediterranean Sea, which was controlled by Italian cities. Expansion at the end of the 15th century. Turkish conquests made trade with the East even more difficult for Europe. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since advancement in this direction meant a clash with Portugal.
All these circumstances turned out to be decisive for the Spanish court to accept Columbus's project. The idea of overseas expansion was supported by the top of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement (capitulation) was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to 1/10 of the income from the newly discovered possessions and 1/8 of the profits from trade.
On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Palos (near Seville), heading southwest. Having passed the Canary Islands, Columbus led the squadron in a northwest direction and after a few days of sailing reached the Sargasso Sea, a significant part of which was covered with algae, which created the illusion of proximity to land. The flotilla found itself in the trade wind zone and moved quickly forward. For several days the ships wandered among the seaweed, but the shore was not visible. This gave rise to superstitious fear among the sailors, and a mutiny was brewing on the ships. In early October, after two months of sailing under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved southwest. On the night of October 12, 1492, one of the sailors saw land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored its northern shore.
Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his largest ship and was forced to leave part of the crew on Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. Having strengthened it with cannons from the lost ship and leaving supplies of food and gunpowder for the garrison, Columbus began to prepare for the return voyage. The fortress on Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - became the first Spanish settlement in the New World.
The open lands, their nature, appearance and occupations of their inhabitants did not in any way resemble the rich lands of Southeast Asia described by travelers from many countries. The natives had copper-red skin color, straight black hair, they walked naked or wore pieces of cotton cloth on their hips. There were no signs of gold mining on the islands, only some of the inhabitants had gold jewelry. Having captured several natives, Columbus explored the Bahamas in search of gold mines. The Spaniards saw hundreds of unfamiliar plants, fruit trees and flowers. In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor.
Columbus's discoveries worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tordesillas, according to which Spain was given the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal to the east.
Columbus made three more voyages to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered, and the coast of Central America. Until the end of his days, Columbus believed that he had found the western route to India, hence the name of the lands “Western Indies,” which was preserved in official documents until the end of the 16th century. However, even on subsequent trips they did not find rich deposits of gold and precious metals there; the income from the new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Many expressed doubts that these lands were India, and the number of Columbus's enemies grew. The discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World was especially great, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance of the famous navigator in Spain in chains and under arrest aroused the indignation of many people belonging to various strata of society, including those close to the queen. Columbus was soon rehabilitated and all his titles were returned to him.
During his last voyage, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba and explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea over a distance of 1,500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. Thus, the admiral did not find a passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.
While sailing along the coast of Yucatan, Columbus encountered more advanced tribes: they made colored fabrics, used bronze utensils, bronze axes, and knew metal smelting. At that moment, the admiral did not attach importance to these lands, which, as it turned out later, were part of the Mayan state - a country with a high culture, one of the great American civilizations. On the way back, Columbus's ship was caught in a strong storm; Columbus reached the shores of Spain with great difficulty. The situation there was unfavorable. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, Columbus's patron, died, and he lost all support at court. He received no response to his letters to King Ferdinand. The great navigator tried in vain to restore his rights to receive income from the newly discovered lands. His property in Spain and Hispaniola was described and sold for debts. Columbus died in 1506, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty. Even the news of his death was published only 27 years later.
Opening of the sea route to India, colonial conquests of the Portuguese.
The tragic fate of Columbus is largely explained by the successes of the Portuguese. In 1497, Vasco da Gama's expedition was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and discovered the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498, with the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Calicut. The entire voyage to India lasted 10 months. Having purchased a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.
The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved; enormous opportunities opened up for the Portuguese for the commercial exploitation of India. Soon, thanks to their superiority in weapons and naval technology, they managed to oust Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and take control of all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiters of the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. The Portuguese demanded that the Indian princes cease all trade relations with the Arabs and expel the Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, and brutally exterminated their crews. Albuquerque, who was first the commander of the squadron and then became the Viceroy of India, was particularly ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should strengthen themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron destroyed defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, causing horror with its atrocities. Arab attempts to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. In 1509, their fleet at Diu (northern coast of India) was defeated.
In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They made extensive use of the rivalry of local rajahs. The colonialists entered into alliances with some of them, built fortresses on their territory and stationed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took control of all trade relations between individual regions of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade brought huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they took possession of the transit routes for the spice trade, which were brought here from the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. In 1511, Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose on the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% profit. The government artificially kept prices high. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the vast colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to maintain high prices, they were destroyed.
Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese persistently sought a western route to this rich country. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second voyage, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. In 1501, Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new continent, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps,
Opening of the western route to India. First trip around the world.
Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of Magellan's trip around the world (1519-1522).
Ferdinand Magellan (Maguillayans) was a descendant of the Portuguese nobility. In his early youth, he took part in sea expeditions while in the service of the Portuguese king. He made several trips to the Moluccas and thought that they lay much closer to the shores of South America. Having no idea, he considered it possible to reach them by moving west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. At this time it was already known that to the west of the Isthmus of Panama lies the “South Sea,” as the Pacific Ocean was called. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive much income from the newly discovered lands, was interested in Magellan’s project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, he was supposed to sail to the southern tip of the American continent and open the western route to India. They complained to him about the titles of ruler and governor of the new lands and a twentieth part of all income that would go to the treasury.
On September 20, 1519, a squadron of five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, heading west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American continent and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. At the end of November 1520, the flotilla entered the Pacific Ocean, the voyage along which lasted over three months. The weather was excellent, the wind was blowing, and Magellan gave the ocean such a name, not knowing that at other times it could be stormy and formidable. During the entire journey, as Magellan’s companion Pigafetta wrote in his diary, the squadron encountered only two deserted islands. The ship's crews suffered from hunger and thirst. The sailors ate skin, soaking it in sea water, drank rotten water, and suffered from scurvy. During the voyage, most of the crew died. Only on March 6, 1521 did the sailors reach three small islands from the Mariana group, where they were able to stock up on food and fresh water. Continuing his journey to the west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands and there he soon died in a skirmish with the natives. The remaining two ships under the command of d'Elcano reached the Moluccas and, having captured a cargo of spices, moved west. The squadron arrived at the Spanish port of San Lucar on September 6, 1522. Of the crew of 253 people, only 18 returned.
New discoveries led to an exacerbation of previous contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time, experts on both sides could not accurately determine the boundaries of Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. In 1529, an agreement was reached: Spain renounced its claims to the Moluccas, but retained rights to the Philippine Islands, which were named after the heir to the Spanish throne, the future King Philip II. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat Magellan’s journey, and the path across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.
Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. Conquest of Mexico and Peru.
In 1500-1510 expeditions led by participants in Columbus's voyages explored the northern coast of South America, Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. By this time, the Spaniards had captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became an outpost of Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which was called the “key to the New World.” Fortresses and settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, and plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices arose. The gold deposits found here were insignificant. To cover the costs of sea expeditions, the Spaniards began economic development of this area. Enslavement and merciless exploitation of the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles, as well as epidemics brought from the Old World, led to a catastrophic decline in population. To replenish labor resources, the conquerors began to import Indians from small islands and from the coast of the mainland to the Antilles, which led to the devastation of entire regions. At the same time, the Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants was especially encouraged; they were given plots of land, they were exempt from taxes for 20 years, and they were paid bonuses for the production of spices. However, there was not enough labor, and from the middle of the 16th century. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles.
Since 1510, a new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle of the 17th century, is called the conquest (conquest). This stage began with the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). In 1513, Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of the fantastic “land of gold” - Eldorado. Going out to the Pacific coast, he planted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. In 1519, the city of Panama was founded - the first on the American continent. Here, detachments of conquistadors began to form, heading into the interior of the mainland.
In 1517-1518 The detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the coast of Yucatan in search of slaves, encountered the most ancient of pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. The shocked conquistadors saw magnificent cities surrounded by fortified walls, rows of pyramids, stone temples, richly decorated with carvings of gods and religious animals. In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards discovered a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, and chased gold disks with scenes of battles and scenes of sacrifice. The walls of the temples were decorated with rich ornaments and frescoes, distinguished by the fineness of work and richness of colors.
The Indians, who had never seen horses, were frightened by the very sight of the Spaniards. The rider on the horse seemed to them a huge monster. Firearms inspired particular fear, which they could counter only with bows, arrows and cotton shells.
By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided between several city-states. Cities were political centers around which agricultural communities united. City rulers collected payments and taxes, were in charge of military affairs and foreign policy, and they also performed the functions of high priests. The Mayan community was the economic, administrative and fiscal unit of society. The cultivated land was divided into plots between families, the remaining land was used jointly. The main labor force was free communal peasants. Within the community, the process of property stratification and class differentiation has already gone far. Priests, officials, and hereditary military leaders stood out. Slave labor was widely used in their economy; debtors, criminals and prisoners of war were enslaved. In addition to collecting taxes, rulers and priests used the community labor service to build palaces, temples, roads, and irrigation systems.
The Maya are the only people of pre-Columbian America that had writing. Their hieroglyphic writing resembles the writing of Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Akkad. Mayan books (codices) were written with paints on long strips of “paper” made from plant fibers and then placed in cases. There were significant libraries at the temples. The Mayans had their own calendar and knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses.
Not only superior weaponry, but also internal struggles between city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Mayan state. From local residents, the Spaniards learned that precious metals were brought from the Aztec country, located north of Yucatan. In 1519, a Spanish detachment headed by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set out to conquer these lands. He hoped to conquer new lands with small forces. His detachment consisted of 400 infantry soldiers, 16 horsemen and 200 Indians, and had 10 heavy cannons and 3 light guns.
The Aztec state, which Cortes set out to conquer, stretched from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes lived on its territory, conquered by the Aztecs. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. A large agricultural population lived here; with the work of many generations, a perfect artificial irrigation system was created, and high yields of cotton, corn, and vegetables were grown. The Aztecs, like other peoples of America, did not domesticate domestic animals, did not know wheeled traction, or metal tools. The social system of the Aztecs was in many ways reminiscent of the Mayan state. The main economic unit was the neighboring community. There was a system of labor service for the population in favor of the state for the construction of palaces, temples, etc. Crafts among the Aztecs had not yet been separated from agriculture; both farmers and artisans lived in the community; there was a stratum of representatives of the nobility and leaders - caciques, who had large tracts of land and used the labor of slaves. Unlike the Mayans, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization, and the transition to the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually carried out. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the tribes conquered by the Aztecs against the conquerors made it easier for the Spaniards to win this unequal struggle. Many conquered tribes went over to their side and participated in the fight against the Aztec rulers. Thus, during the last siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, 1 thousand Spaniards and 100 thousand Indians took part in the battle. Despite this, the siege lasted 225 days. The final conquest of Mexico spanned more than two decades. The last Mayan stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697, i.e. 173 years after their invasion of Yucatan. Mexico lived up to the hopes of its conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in the 20s of the 16th century. The development of silver mines began. The merciless exploitation of Indians in mines and construction, and massive epidemics led to a rapid decline in population. Over 50 years it has decreased from 4.5 million to 1 million people.
Simultaneously with the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors were looking for the fabulous country of Eldorado on the coast of South America. In 1524, the conquest of the territory of present-day Colombia began, where the port of Santa Marta was founded. From here, the Spanish conquistador Jimenez Quesada, moving up the Magdalena River, reached the possessions of the Chibcha-Muisca tribes living on the Bogotá plateau. Hoe farming, pottery and weaving production, and processing of copper, gold and silver were developed here. The Chibcha were especially famous as skilled jewelers who made jewelry and dishes from gold, silver, copper and emeralds. Gold discs served as their equivalent in trade with other regions. Having conquered the largest Chibcha-Muisca principality, Jimenez Quesada founded the city of Santa Fe de Bogota in 1536.
The second stream of colonization came from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. Rich Spanish merchants from the Isthmus of Panama took part in preparing expeditions to Peru. One of the detachments was led by the semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura, Francisco Pizarro. In 1524, together with his fellow countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the west coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquil (modern Ecuador). Fertile, densely populated lands stretched here. The population was engaged in agriculture, raising herds of llamas, which were used as pack animals. The meat and milk of llamas was used for food, and durable and warm fabrics were made from their wool. Returning to Spain in 1531, Pizarro signed a capitulation with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - leader of a detachment of conquistadors. His two brothers and 250 hidalgos from Extremadura joined the expedition. In 1532, Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. The path opened before him to conquer the Inca state - Tahuantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which was experiencing a period of greatest growth at the time of the Spanish invasion. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru has been inhabited by Quechua Indians. In the XIV century. one of the Quechuan tribes - the Incas - was conquered by numerous Indian tribes living in the territory of modern Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. By the beginning of the 16th century. The Inca state included part of the territory of Chile and Argentina. From the tribe of conquerors a military nobility was formed, and the word “Inca” acquired the meaning of a title. The center of the Incan power was the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains. Carrying out their conquests, the Incas sought to assimilate the conquered tribes, resettled them inland, implanted the Quechua language, and introduced a single religion - the cult of the Sun. The Temple of the Sun in Cusco was a pantheon of regional gods. Like the Mayans and Aztecs, the basic unit of Inca society was the neighboring community. Along with family plots, there were “Inca fields” and “Sun fields”, which were cultivated together and the harvest from them went to support the rulers and priests. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders were already allocated, which were the property and were passed on by inheritance. The ruler of Tahuantisuyu, the Inca, was considered the supreme owner of all lands.
In 1532, when several dozen Spaniards embarked on a campaign into the interior of Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. The tribes of the northern Pacific coast, conquered by the Incas, supported the conquerors. Almost without encountering resistance, F. Pizarro reached the important center of the Inca state - the city of Cajamarca, located in the high mountainous region of the Andes. Here the Spaniards captured the ruler Tahuantisuya Atagualpa and imprisoned him. Although the Indians collected a huge ransom and filled the prisoner of the captive leader with gold and silver jewelry, ingots, and vessels, the Spaniards executed Atagualpa and appointed a new ruler. In 1535, Pizarro made a campaign against Cuzco, which was conquered after a difficult struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of Peru lasted more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. A new Indian state arose in inaccessible mountainous areas, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572.
Simultaneously with Pizarro’s campaign in Peru in 1535-1537. Adelantado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to return to Cuzco, which was besieged by the rebel Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, in which F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d'Almagro died. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucanian tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in the end of the 17th century. The colonization of La Plata began in 1515, lands along the La Plata and Paraguay rivers were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. In 1542, two streams of colonization merged here.
If at the first stage of the conquest the conquerors seized precious metals accumulated in previous times, then from 1530 in Mexico and on the territory of Peru and modern Bolivia (Upper Peru) the systematic exploitation of the richest mines began. Rich deposits of precious metals were discovered in the Potosi region. In the middle of the 16th century. The mines of Potosi provided 1/2 of the world's silver production.
Since that time, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors abandon the economic development of the conquered lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for gold and silver from the New World.
Only nobles were sent to the American colonies, whose goal was to enrich themselves. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fatal circumstance for Spain that gold and silver in America fell mainly into the hands of the nobility, accumulated in the form of treasures or was spent on supporting Catholic conspiracies in Europe, on the military adventures of the Spanish kings. This new direction of colonial exploitation had a decisive influence on the formation of the Spanish colonial system.
Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of the country (see Chapter 8), Spanish feudalism was characterized by some specific features: the supreme power of the king over the conquered lands, the preservation of free peasant communities, and the labor service of the population in favor of the state. Along with the labor of feudally dependent peasants, slave labor of Muslim prisoners played an important role in the economy. At the time of the conquest of America, the socio-economic and administrative system of Spain turned out to be compatible with those forms of social organization that existed in the early class states of the New World.
The Spaniards preserved the Indian community in Mexico, Peru and in a number of other areas where there was a dense agricultural population and they used various forms of community labor service in favor of the state to attract Indians to work in the mines. The Spaniards preserved the internal structure of communities, crop rotations, and the tax system. Harvests from the “fields of the Inca” were now used to pay taxes to the Spanish king, and from the “fields of the Sun” - to church tithes.
The former elders (caciques, curacs) remained at the head of the communities; their families were exempt from taxes and duties, but had to ensure timely payment of taxes and labor for the mines. The local call was brought into the service of the Spanish king, who merged with the Spanish conquerors. The descendants of many of them were then sent to Spain.
All newly conquered lands became the property of the crown. Beginning in 1512, laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, had to pay a special tax "tributo" and serve labor service. From the first years of colonization, a struggle developed between the king and the conquistador nobles for power over the Indians and for ownership of the land. During this struggle in the late 20s of the 16th century. A special form of exploitation of the Indians arose - encomienda. It was first introduced in Mexico by E. Cortes. The encomienda did not give the right to own land. Its owner, the encomendero, received the right to exploit the Indian communities living on the territory of the encomienda.
The encomendero was entrusted with the responsibility of promoting the Christianization of the population, monitoring the timely payment of the "tributo" and the fulfillment of labor duties in mines, construction, and agricultural work. With the creation of the encomienda, the Indian community was included in the Spanish colonial system. The community's lands were declared its inalienable property. The formation of forms of colonial exploitation was accompanied by the creation of a strong bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial administration. For the Spanish monarchy, this was a means of fighting against the separatist tendencies of the conquistadors.
In the first half of the 16th century. In general terms, a system of governing the Spanish colonies in America was formed. Two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean islands) and the Viceroyalty of Peru, covering almost all of the rest of South America, with the exception of Brazil. The viceroys were appointed from the highest Spanish nobility, they were sent to the colonies for three years, they did not have the right to take their family with them, buy land and real estate there, or engage in business. The activities of the viceroys were controlled by the "Council of the Indies", whose decisions had the force of law.
Colonial trade was brought under the control of the Seville Chamber of Commerce (1503): it carried out customs inspection of all cargo, collected duties, and kept emigration processes under supervision. All other cities in Spain were deprived of the right to trade with America bypassing Seville. The main economic sector in the Spanish colonies was mining. In this regard, the viceroys were responsible for providing the royal mines with labor, timely receipt of income to the treasury, including the poll tax from the Indians. The viceroys also had full military and judicial powers.
The one-sided economic development in the Spanish colonies had a disastrous effect on the fate of the indigenous population and the future development of the continent. Until the middle of the 17th century. There was a catastrophic decline in the indigenous population. In many areas by 1650 it had decreased by 10-15 times compared to the end of the 16th century, primarily due to the diversion of the working-age male population to the mines for 9-10 months a year. This led to the decline of traditional forms of agriculture and a decrease in the birth rate. An important reason was frequent famines and epidemics that devastated entire regions. Since the middle of the 16th century. The Spaniards began to resettle Indians in new villages closer to the mines, introducing a communal system into them. Residents of these villages, in addition to government work, had to cultivate the land, provide their families with food and pay "tributo". Severe exploitation was the main reason for the extinction of the indigenous population. The influx of immigrants from the metropolis was insignificant. In the middle and second half of the 16th century. Mostly Spanish nobles moved to the colonies; peasant emigration to Peru and Mexico was actually prohibited. Thus, in Potosí in 1572 there were 120 thousand inhabitants, of which only 10 thousand were Spaniards. Gradually, a special group of Spanish immigrants emerged in America, who were born in the colony, lived there permanently, having almost no connections with the metropolis. They did not mix with the local population and formed a special group called Creoles.
Under the conditions of colonization, there was a rapid erosion of Indian ethnic groups and tribal communities, the displacement of their languages by Spanish. This was greatly facilitated by the resettlement of Indians from different regions into settlements near the mines. Representatives of different tribes spoke different languages, and gradually Spanish became their main language of communication. At the same time, there was an intensive process of mixing Spanish settlers with the Indian population - miscegenation, and the number of mestizos quickly increased. Already by the middle of the 17th century. in many areas a large mulatto population appears from the marriages of Europeans with black women. This was typical for the Caribbean coast, Cuba, and Haiti, where the plantation economy dominated and where African slaves were constantly imported. Europeans, Indians, mestizos, mulattoes, and blacks existed as closed racial-ethnic groups, very different in their social and legal status. The emerging caste system was consolidated by Spanish legislation. A person's position in society was primarily determined by ethnic and racial characteristics. Only the Creoles had relatively full rights. Mestizos were prohibited from living in communities, owning land, carrying weapons, and engaging in certain types of crafts. At the same time, they were freed from labor duties, from paying "tributo" and were in a better legal position than the Indians. This largely explains the fact that in the cities of Spanish America mestizos and mulattoes made up the majority of the population.
On the Caribbean coast and on the islands, where the indigenous people were exterminated at the very beginning of the conquest of America, the black and mulatto population predominated.
Portuguese colonies.
The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was distinguished by significant originality. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes, who were at the stage of a tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The lack of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the uniqueness of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of trading capital. Organized colonization of Brazil began in 1530, and it took the form of economic development of coastal areas. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captaincys, the owners of which had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony proceeded slowly. The absence of peasant migrants and the small number of indigenous people made the development of feudal forms of economy impossible. The areas where the plantation system, based on the exploitation of black slaves from Africa, developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the 16th century. The importation of African slaves is growing rapidly. In 1583, there were 25 thousand white settlers and millions of slaves throughout the colony. White settlers lived mainly in the coastal zone in rather closed groups. Here, miscegenation did not take off on a large scale; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant; a unique language of communication between Indians and Portuguese arose - “lengua geral”, which was based on one of the local dialects and the basic grammatical and lexical forms of the Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil over the next two centuries.
Colonization and the Catholic Church.
The Catholic Church played a major role in the colonization of America, which, both in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus and the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was considered by the papacy as a new crusade, the goal of which was to Christianize the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, direct missionary activities, and found churches and monasteries. The church quickly became the largest land owner. The conquistadors were well aware that Christianization would play a big role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who gained great influence in La Plata and Brazil. Groups of monks followed the conquistador troops, creating their own mission villages; the centers of the missions were churches and houses that served as dwellings for the monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built to house a Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both outposts of Christianization and border points of the Spanish possessions.
In the first decades of the Conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, and the very historical memory of the people. However, Catholic priests soon began to act in other ways. Carrying out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and the Spanish language, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die; it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. A new culture gradually emerged based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.
Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, and used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population, including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. Thus, not far from the city of Mexico, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for Indians. The church claimed that a miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many icons and special rituals were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - a “dark Madonna,” and in her cult itself echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.
Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean.
In the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from Peru, during which the Solomon Islands (1567), Southern Polynesia (1595) and Melanesia (1605) were discovered. Even during Magellan's journey, the idea of the existence of a “Southern Continent” arose, part of which were the newly discovered islands of Southeast Asia. These assumptions were expressed in geographical works of the early 17th century; the mythical continent was put on maps under the name “Terra incognita Australia” (unknown southern land). In 1605, a Spanish expedition set off from Peru, consisting of three ships. During the voyage to the coast of Southeast Asia, islands were discovered, one of which A. Quiros, who was at the head of the squadron, mistook for the coast of the southern mainland. Abandoning his companions to the mercy of fate, Quiros hastened to return to Peru, and then went to Spain to report his discovery and secure the rights to manage new lands and generate income. The captain of one of the two ships abandoned by Quiros - the Portuguese Torres - continued sailing and soon found out that Quiros was mistaken and discovered not a new continent, but a group of islands (New Hebrides). To the south of them stretched an unknown land - true Australia. Sailing further west, Torres passed through the strait between the coast of New Guinea and Australia, which was later named after him. Having reached the Philippine Islands, which were the possession of Spain, Torres informed the Spanish governor about his discovery, this news was transmitted to Madrid. However, Spain at that time did not have the strength and means to develop new lands. Therefore, the Spanish government kept secret all information about the discovery of Torres for a whole century, fearing the rivalry of other powers.
In the middle of the 17th century. The Dutch began exploring the coast of Australia. In 1642, A. Tasman, sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the east, rounded Australia from the south and passed along the coast of the island called Tasmania.
Only 150 years after Torres's journey, during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), when the British, who fought against Spain, captured Manila, documents about Torres' discovery were discovered in the archives. In 1768, the English navigator D. Cook explored the islands of Oceania and rediscovered the Torres Strait and the eastern coast of Australia; Subsequently, the priority of this discovery was recognized as Torres.
Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. had a huge impact on world development. It is known that much earlier Europeans visited the coast of America and made trips to the shores of Africa, but only the discovery of Columbus marked the beginning of constant and varied connections between Europe and America and opened a new stage in world history. A geographical discovery is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the earth. The concept of “geographical discovery” includes the establishment of a direct connection between newly discovered lands and centers of culture of the Old World.
The great geographical discoveries significantly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the world and destroyed many prejudices and false ideas about other continents and the peoples inhabiting them.
The expansion of scientific knowledge gave impetus to the rapid development of industry and trade in Europe, the emergence of new forms of the financial system, banking and credit. The main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the “price revolution,” which gave new impetus to the initial accumulation of capital in Europe and accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy.
However, the consequences of colonization and the conquest of new lands were ambiguous for the peoples of the metropolises and colonies. The result of colonization was not only the development of new lands, it was accompanied by the monstrous exploitation of conquered peoples, doomed to slavery and extinction. During the conquest, many centers of ancient civilizations were destroyed, the natural course of historical development of entire continents was disrupted, the peoples of the colonized countries were forcibly drawn into the emerging capitalist market and, through their labor, accelerated the process of formation and development of capitalism in Europe.
The text is printed according to the edition: History of the Middle Ages: In 2 vols. T. 2: Early modern times: I90 Textbook / Ed. SP. Karpova. - M: Publishing house of Moscow State University: INFRA-M, 2000. - 432 p.
The next era of human development is the era of early modern times. The beginning of it is considered to be the boundary between the 15th and 16th centuries, and most researchers place its end in the middle of the 17th century. Consequently, this era lasted only a century and a half.
Let's first try, as we did before, to highlight the general features of world development in the early modern period.
Firstly, it was a time of further development of the productive forces, deepening of the social and geographical division of labor, and the spread of the commodity economy. The greatest progress affected handicraft production, the development of which was accompanied by many technical improvements. Agriculture developed more slowly, but there was progress in this industry as well. The achievements of maritime navigation, which largely predetermined the Great Geographical Discoveries, became especially noticeable.
Secondly, this was the era when capitalist relations were born. True, feudalism still continued to dominate not only in the East, but also in most European countries. But in advanced countries its decomposition has already begun. And the original form of the capitalist mode of production was manufacture (literally translated from Latin - “handmade product”). In turn, the transition to manufacturing led to the emergence of the bourgeois classes and wage workers, and at the end of the era - to the first bourgeois revolutions. />Thirdly, the so-called primitive accumulation of capital became a kind of “vestibule” of capitalism. The main methods of such accumulation include the forced expropriation of peasants and artisans, which created a reserve army of workers, and the exploitation of the overseas colonies that had already appeared by that time.
Fourthly, the political map of the early modern era demonstrates the gradual overcoming of former feudal fragmentation and the strengthening of the process of political centralization. But the political superstructure of feudal society itself - the feudal state - remained quite strong.
Fifth, the world population in the early modern era increased from 425 million in 1500 to 575 million in 1650. This means that population growth accelerated. But human settlement remained very uneven: Asia accounted for 70% of all inhabitants, followed by Europe and Africa, and the whole of America accounted for only 3% of the world's population.
Sixth, new successes have been achieved in the field of material and spiritual culture. In Europe, they were associated primarily with the advent of the Renaissance, as well as with the church reformation of the 16th century. Despite some lag in socio-economic development, the civilizations of the East have also made a great contribution to world culture.
We will now move on to a regional overview of the world, starting again with Europe. You will ask why? Yes, because with the transition to the early modern period, its leading role in the world clearly strengthened. This was facilitated by such factors as an even greater consolidation of its historical space, the growth of productive forces, changes in the social structure of society, the emergence of the figure of a free owner and entrepreneur, and the emergence of a new ideology.
First of all, all of the above applies to the western part of Europe, which found itself in the most favorable development conditions. This is why European civilization itself is often called Western.
For the political map of Europe, instability and fragmentation still continued to be characteristic, although not to the same extent as in the Middle Ages.
In addition, instability in the new era was no longer associated with foreign invasions, but with constant wars between the European countries themselves. In Northern Europe, the main struggle was between Denmark and Sweden, in Eastern Europe - between the Polish-Lithuanian state and Russia, in Southern Europe - between Venice and the Ottoman Empire, and the German emperors fought with France for hegemony over all of Europe. The political map of the region was also greatly redrawn after the Thirty Years' War in the first half of the 17th century, which went down in history as the first pan-European war.
When they talk about the fragmentation of the political map of Europe in the early modern period, then, as in the Middle Ages, they mean primarily Italy and especially Germany (it was then called the “Holy Roman Empire of the German nation”), in which in the 16th century. there were up to 300 (!) different state entities. The largest of them were Austria, where the Austrian Habsburgs ruled, who stood at the head of the entire empire, Brandenburg, Saxony, and Bavaria. The political stripes on the map of Europe intensified thanks to dynastic marriages and inheritances. First of all, this applied to the possessions of the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, which, in addition to Spain itself, included part of Southern Italy, the Netherlands, etc. (Fig. 17).
The figure shows that the largest centralized states of Europe at that time were France, England, Spain, and Denmark. But the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland) only externally looked like a large state. In fact, anarchy reigned in it due to the confrontation between the power of the king, large magnates and the gentry. In eastern Europe
Topic 2. Historical and geographical introduction (lecture 5-9)
Russia had already become the largest state, where further “gathering of lands” and “gathering of power” took place. At the same time, the expansion of the borders of the Russian state occurred both in the western, eastern and southern directions (Fig. 18). Remember from your school history course that under Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were annexed to Russia. And at the beginning of the 17th century, there were “times of troubles” and wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The most common form of government in the early modern era remained the monarchy. However, the previously predominant class monarchy began to be replaced by an absolute monarchy, with the help of which feudalism tried 
Rice. 18. Expansion of the Russian state in the 16th century. (according to A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov)
resist the capitalist formation. Such large centralized states as France and England turned into absolute monarchies.
The formation of an absolute monarchy in France began under King Francis I, continued under Henry IV, with whose reign the Bourbon dynasty began, then under his young son Louis XIII, when in fact power was in the hands of his first minister, Cardinal Richelieu (you all, of course, remembered “ The Three Musketeers" by Dumas). And in England, royal power strengthened and became absolute with the accession of the Tudor dynasty - under Henry VII, Henry VIII and especially under his daughter Queen Elizabeth I, who ruled the country for 45 years, showing all the qualities of the “Iron Lady” (the conquest of Ireland, execution of the Scottish queen Mary Stuart).
In Russia, Ivan the Terrible, proclaimed the first Russian Tsar in 1547, also strove for “autocracy.” But still, the Russian monarchy was closer to the class one, since under the tsar there was a boyar duma and zemstvo councils met; in 1613 this council elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne.
We have already talked about European city-republics. But in early modern times, after a long and bloody war with Spain, the Northern Netherlands became a republic; Usually this victory is equated with a bourgeois revolution in a given country. In fact, the republican system also won in Switzerland.
The main branch of the European economy during this period remained agriculture, in which feudal-serf relations still dominated, but farming appeared in the Netherlands and England. The arsenal of traditional agricultural crops was replenished with corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco, which were brought to Europe from the New World. Plowing of land, improvement of tools, crop rotations, specialization of agricultural areas continued - grain, viticulture and winemaking, flax growing, with a predominance of sheep farming, dairy farming, and sometimes such specific industries as, for example, floriculture.
You may have read about the “tulip fever” in the Netherlands in the 16th century, which sometimes took the most exaggerated forms. It is known from the archives that once for one very rare tulip bulb a buyer paid: two cartloads of wheat, four cartloads of rye, four oxen, eight pigs, twelve sheep, 500 liters of wine, four barrels of beer, two barrels of butter, a thousand pounds of cheese, a bed of a canopy, a piece of cloth, a silver cup and 2500 florins.
Many technical innovations have appeared in handicraft production. The formation of areas of its concentration continued. For example, Northern Italy and Flanders continued to lead in textile production, but English Lancashire and Yorkshire were added to them. In metallurgy, England, the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden took precedence; in mining, not only Germany, but also England; in shipbuilding, having overtaken Venice, the Netherlands came out on top. And Russia was famous for its foundry (the famous Kremlin Tsar Cannon was cast in 1586), woodworking, and salt pans.
The population of Europe grew from 85 million in 1500 to 115 million in 1650. At the same time, its share of the world population increased to 20%. Factors in the growth of the number of residents continued to include early marriages (remember that Shakespeare’s Juliet was 14 years old) and large families. Nevertheless, the average life expectancy remained at 30-35 years, although there were, of course, exceptions, for example, Martin Luther and Rembrandt lived 63 years, Leonardo da Vinci - 67, Cervantes - 69, Copernicus and Erasmus of Rotterdam - 70, Galileo - 78, Michelangelo - 89, and Titian - 99 years old. But the factors limiting population growth also remained in full force - years of famine, epidemics of plague and other diseases, constant wars; It is estimated that the military human losses of Europe in the 17th century. were 3 million people.
As for population distribution, Russia (20 million) and France (19 million) remained the largest countries, and the average population density in Western Europe increased to 30-35 people per 1 km2. The rural population was at least 80-90%, and the urban population, as before, predominated in the Netherlands with its 300 cities and in Northern Italy. Paris remained the largest city with 300 thousand inhabitants, followed by Naples (270), London and Amsterdam (200 each), Venice and Antwerp (150 thousand each).
Let us add that the process of the birth and formation of nations occurred most quickly in such large and centralized states as France and England. In the eastern and southeastern parts of Western Europe, it progressed more slowly due to the national oppression of the peoples that were part of the Austrian Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire.
The main changes in the material and spiritual culture of Europe were associated with the great ideological revolution that marked the advent of the Renaissance. The time has come for the flourishing of humanism and life-affirming material and spiritual culture. Gothic was replaced by the Renaissance style, which originated in the birthplace of the Renaissance - in Italy, so its striking examples include St. Peter's Cathedral and the Vatican palaces, many church and secular buildings in Florence, Venice, other cities of this country, as well as Paris and London , Brussels, Madrid, and even Moscow (Ivan the Great Bell Tower, St. Basil's Cathedral).
The rise of spiritual culture during the Renaissance was associated with the spread of the printing press and the transition from predominantly religious to predominantly secular literature. A no less, if not greater, rise occurred in the fine arts (Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Rembrandt, Rubens, Velazquez, El Greco, Durer, etc.) A real revolution occurred at this time in science - astronomy (Copernicus, Galileo, Bruno, Kepler, Tycho Brahe), mathematics, physics, mechanics, geography and cartography, humanities.
Along with the Renaissance, the Reformation movement, which advocated reforming the Catholic Church, played a huge role in the fight against feudal ideology at that time. During the Reformation, a third branch of Christianity arose - Protestantism, with its three main branches - Lutheranism (named after Martin Luther), Calvinism (named after John Calvin) and the Anglican Church, established in England by King Henry VIII. At first, the advance of Protestantism took the Catholic Church by surprise. But then, having carried out the so-called Counter-Reformation, it regained some of its previous positions.
So that you can compare the early modern era with the era of the Middle Ages, we will also point out the changes that occurred in the geographical division of labor. If we limit ourselves only to international trade, then in Western Europe the same two main areas of maritime trade continued to exist - northern and southern. But by this time, in the first of them, the Hanseatic League had already lost its significance, but Antwerp, Amsterdam, and London came to the fore. But the southern region began to gradually decline. This was explained by the policy of the Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean and the rise of piracy. And within the Russian state, another large area of international trade was formed, specializing in trade with the West, trade with the East and transit trade between them.
Let us now move, as usual, from Europe to Asia, but we will not consider it in detail. We will only point out the main changes.
On the political map, these include the conquest of India by Timur's grandson Babur, who founded the Mughal Empire - the state of the Great Mughals. China was conquered by the Manchus, and their Qing ("light") dynasty began to rule instead of the Ming dynasty. And Japan was finally united, but not under the rule of the emperor, who had a residence in Kyoto, but under the rule of the feudal leader - the shogun, whose capital became the city of Edo, present-day Tokyo.
In Asian agriculture during this period, three main types of production even more clearly emerged: irrigated agriculture, rain-fed agriculture and nomadic cattle breeding. In most countries, such branches of handicraft production as textiles, silk weaving, pottery, leatherwork, metal embossing, the production of edged weapons, and household items have further developed. India and China had the widest range of crafts.
The estimated population of Asia in 1600 was about 380 million. China remained the largest country in Asia and the whole world, and India was in second place (as it is now!). The population density in the rice-growing areas of the river valleys and deltas of monsoon Asia increased to 300-400 people per 1 km2, and at the other pole there remained areas of nomadic cattle breeding. The share of urban residents was still relatively small, but such large cities as Beijing in China, Ahmedabad and Agra in India stood out against this background. The cities were associated with world-famous objects of material culture that have survived to this day, examples of which are the mosques of Istanbul, the Taj Mahal mausoleum in Agra (India), the Imperial City, which was being completed at that time in the center of Beijing, mosques and madrassas in Samarkand and Bukhara. Cities, especially capital cities, also determined the geography of spiritual culture.
The general conclusion suggests itself: while in Europe a new, capitalist way of life was developing and beginning to win, in Asia the strengthening of feudal orders continued, and the sprouts of capitalism, at least in the form of manufacturing, did not develop. This caused Asia to lag behind Europe in the early modern period. Therefore, the glory of the Great Geographical Discoveries went to European countries.
Great geographical discoveries also occurred in the early modern period, and we will consider them separately because of the special geographical significance of these discoveries, which greatly expanded the Europeans’ understanding of the world ecumene and contributed to the development of the European economy.
Great geographical discoveries (GDO) are a truly immense topic, moreover, well supplied with a variety of literature. Taking into account the fact that you studied these discoveries themselves, i.e., the voyages of Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da Gama, etc., in the course of general geoscience, we will not return to this topic. And as the main ones, we will consider only the premises of the VGO, which were covered in detail by I.A. in his “Historical Introduction...” Witwer, and the consequences of VGO.
Let's start with the premises of the VGO, which boil down to the following.
Firstly, these were economic prerequisites. In connection with the development of commodity-money relations and world trade, Europe in the 16th century. began to experience a great lack of finances. It must also be taken into account that in relations with the East, Europe had a passive trade balance, that is, it bought more than it sold. As a result, the pursuit of gold from the eastern countries became one of the most important incentives for the VGO. According to F. Engels, “gold was the magic word that drove the Spaniards across the Atlantic Ocean.”
Secondly, there were political and religious prerequisites. We have already talked about the formation in Europe of large centralized states that had the necessary means to organize overseas travel. The Catholic Church also played a major role in the implementation of the aggressive policy, striving to convert as many pagans as possible.
Thirdly, these were social prerequisites. The fact is that at the end of the 15th century. The Reconquista had just ended - the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moorish Arabs, which had been occupied by the small nobility of Spain and Portugal for centuries. These Spanish hidalgos and Portuguese 
Fidalgu, whose main craft was war, made up the bulk of the conquistadors (in Spanish, “conquerors”) who set off to conquer new lands.
Fourthly, these were technical prerequisites - the creation of new navigation instruments (compass, astrolabe), sea compass charts - portolans and new types of sea vessels - caravels.
Fifthly, these were scientific prerequisites, which should include achievements in the field of geography, astronomy, proof of the sphericity of the Earth, with which Columbus’s idea about the possibility of a western sea route to India across the Atlantic was directly related. And a kind of cartographic basis for this journey can be considered a world map compiled by the Italian astronomer and geographer Paolo Toscanelli (Fig. 19).
Finally, sixthly, there were historical and geographical prerequisites associated with the formation of a trade barrier in the eastern Mediterranean in the form of the Ottoman Empire and the movement of trade routes to the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. That is why it was necessary to look for new routes to the East. And that is why the pioneers of the Great Geographical Discoveries were no longer Venice and Genoa, but Spain and Portugal. But their directions of movement were completely different. Following Columbus, Spanish ships headed for the New World, and Portuguese ships, following Vasco da Gama, sailed around Africa to the Indian Ocean.
Now let's move on to the consequences of VGO, which can be divided into geographical, political and economic.
It is not difficult to guess that the main geographical consequence of the VGO was the enormous expansion of geographical horizons. If before the start of these discoveries, Europeans’ knowledge of the world around them was limited mainly to Europe, the Near and Middle East, then by the beginning of the 17th century. The territories of the globe known to them compared to the 14th century. increased sixfold! This was reflected in the world map published at the end of the 16th century. the famous Flemish cartographer G. Mercator (Fig. 20), whom Yu.G. Saushkin called it “Ptolemy of the end of the Renaissance.”
The main political consequence of the VGO was the formation of the first three colonial empires. The largest of them - the Spanish one - after the discoveries and conquests of Columbus, Cortez, Pizarro and many other pioneer conquistadors, it took shape in the New World. At the initial stage of exploration, the Spaniards were primarily interested in the gold and silver of the Incas and Aztecs; at the second stage, they themselves began mining silver in Mexico and Peru, and at the third, they began to develop plantation agriculture. To replenish the labor force in the mines and plantations, the Spanish authorities began to import black slaves from Africa. And in Asia, after Magellan's voyage, Spain began to own the Philippine Islands.
Portuguese colonial empire in the 16th century. included territories in three parts of the world - Asia, Africa and South America. But its basis was possessions in Asia - in India, Ceylon, Malacca, the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands. In Africa, the Portuguese controlled Angola on the west coast and Mozambique on the east coast. And in South America, after Cabral's voyage, they settled in the oceanic parts of Brazil.
The Dutch largely followed the path of the Portuguese, and gradually managed to take away many of their possessions in Asia, including 
Rice. 20. Scheme of the world map from the Mercator Atlas, 1595.
tea The Moluccas are the spice islands. And the island of Java became the core of their colonial empire.
England at this time also entered the struggle for colonies, but initially limited itself to the plunder of Spanish possessions. While doing just this, Francis Drake, on his “Golden Hind,” made the second circumnavigation of the world after Magellan. The main event of this confrontation between the two countries was the defeat by England of the Great Armada, equipped by the Spanish king Philip II in 1588. The death of the Great Armada undermined the naval power of Spain and allowed England to establish its first colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America. And France created its first colonies in Canada and the Caribbean.
Finally, the main economic consequences of the VS were the formation of world trade and the world market. The composition of this trade was still very limited to the so-called colonial goods - gold, silver, precious stones, pearls, diamonds, ivory, spices.
It’s hard for us to imagine now, but spices at that time were worth their weight in gold. They were used not only as a seasoning for food, but also when preparing food for long-term storage, since they “knocked out”, say, frozen corned beef. Such types of spices as black pepper, bay, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, anise were known in Europe back in the Middle Ages, but in the era of the Great Patriotic War their supply from India and the Moluccas increased significantly. And America began to supply red pepper and vanilla. By the way, a bag of pepper was considered the best dowry for a bride...
Gradually, the number of colonial goods also included coffee, cocoa, sugar, tobacco, fish, and furs.
As for the geography of world trade, it was carried out according to a very simple scheme: colony - metropolis. Spain exported especially a lot of goods from its colonies in the New World. Every year, special sea caravans with gold and silver, called the “golden fleet” and “silver fleet,” were sent from Havana to Spanish ports.
This pattern was violated, perhaps, only by the trade in “ebony” - slaves who were exported from Africa to America. The Portuguese were the first to start the slave trade, then the British, French, and Dutch joined in. We can also add that during the Civil War, piracy literally flourished in the sea, the main area of which was the Caribbean Sea, called the Filibuster Sea.
In conclusion, I will add that if you really want to understand and feel the era of the early modern period, then you should turn to fiction - re-read at least the trilogy of Alexandre Dumas, “Till Eulenspiegel” by Charles de Coster, “The Spanish Ballad” by Leon Feuchtwanger, “Treasure Island” "Robert Louis Stevenson, "Moctezuma's Daughter" by Henry Rider Haggard.
Test questions Describe the general features of world development in the early modern era. How did the political map and economy of Europe change in the early modern period? Give a general description of the development of Asia in this era. What are the main prerequisites for the Great Geographical Discoveries? Explain what the main consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries are.
The beginning of the New Age can be considered the discovery by Europeans of routes to India and America, which dramatically changed the position of Europe on the world map, being the forerunner of its rapid industrial development. The most important trade routes that determined the development of individual cities also changed. For a short period in the first half of the 16th century. Lisbon in Portugal and Seville in Spain took the lead, where goods from India and precious metals from America began to flock. Italian cities, which found themselves far from new routes, on the contrary, began to lose their sign, which was aggravated by the creation of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, which blocked all land routes from Europe to India.
In the second half of the 16th century. The main trade crossroads of Europe moved to the north-west of the continent - to the coast of the North Sea. The cities of the Netherlands, located at the mouths of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt rivers, which led to the interior of Europe, found themselves in the most advantageous position. Antwerp became the main trading center. Along the banks of the Scheldt in this city, an entire trade and warehouse zone was formed, where goods from many countries flocked and then distributed throughout the regions of Europe. The most important contracts began to be concluded not on the markets, but on the exchange, which sharply increased trading volumes. The main square of the city was intended for ceremonies and holidays, and it was decorated with the buildings of the town hall and the most important trade guilds. New craft industries appeared, including jewelry, and the first textile factories. At the same time, politically, the Netherlands at that time found themselves under the rule of Spain, where a significant part of the income of merchants and artisans went. Economic contradictions were intensified by national and religious ones. This led to a revolt of the population of the Netherlands during the era of Spanish domination. As a result of many years of struggle, they gained independence at the end of the 16th century. Only the northern part of the Netherlands, Holland, populated predominantly by Protestants, succeeded. Antwerp, which remained in the southern part under Spanish rule, lost its dominant position. The main trading center of Europe and the whole world in the first half of the 15th century. Amsterdam became the capital of Holland. Amsterdam is a small fishing village - growing sharply in size. On its central square, Dam ("dam"), a monumental town hall (later a royal palace) is being built, and nearby there is a stock exchange and shopping districts. The sea coast is occupied by numerous warehouses and shipyards. Residential buildings radiate in rings from the city center, with the rings formed by specially constructed canals with embankments. Manufactories are springing up on the outskirts of the city, processing raw materials from all over the world.
But the dominance of Holland and Amsterdam also turns out to be short-lived. After the bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century. England is strengthening significantly. She first wins the war with Spain, and then a series of wars with Holland, becoming the leading naval power in the world. The role of the main trade and economic center of the world passes to the capital of England, London. London originated as a military camp back in the days of Ancient Rome. It is located on the Thames River - the main route to the interior of England from the coast - at the point upstream from the mouth where the river becomes narrower and a crossing can be organized across it (there are still no bridges across the Thames below London). In the Middle Ages, London remained a relatively small city, although the most powerful royal fortress, the Tower, was built near it downstream of the Thames, and Westminster Abbey, which was the site of the coronation and burial of English kings, was built upstream.
Since the 17th century. London is beginning to develop rapidly. Down the river from the city, the London Docklands area arises, consisting of numerous harbors, warehouses, and shipyards. Adjacent to this zone is the East End - working-class residential areas built up with multi-storey barracks-type buildings. Historic London - City - is gradually being built up with buildings of banks, stock exchanges, offices of the largest companies, city public buildings (St. Paul's Cathedral, City Hall - Guidehall, court, etc.). Parliament buildings, ministries, and royal palaces (Buckingham, etc.) are being built near Westminster Abbey. Large green areas are preserved here (Hyde Park, etc.), shopping and entertainment districts emerge (Soho, etc.). In general, the western part of London - the West End - becomes a place of residence for the privileged segments of the population. Sharp social territorial stratification first appears in London. Serious measures are being taken here to regulate the development of the city, in particular, a green belt is being created around the city, and new suburbs are being built outside this belt with a gap from the main body of urban development. The new suburbs adopt the "garden city" principle, with single-family houses dominating the landscape surrounded by trees. At the same time, the layout of the city center remains confusing, with narrow streets and the absence of a clear organizing center of the city. By the beginning of the 20th century. London's population is 4.5 million, making it the largest city that has ever existed in history.
At the same time, other cities and industrial centers are developing in England (Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, etc.). They consist of residential working-class neighborhoods at industrial enterprises, loosely connected with each other, in fact, in the absence of a single urban center. Specialized port cities, military bases, and resorts also emerge, while preserving the university towns and small local centers that appeared in the Middle Ages. Thus, already in the 19th century. In England, an urban settlement system close to the modern one is being formed. In this country, for the first time in the world, the proportion of urban residents exceeds half of the population, and at the beginning of the 20th century. In Great Britain, about 75% of the population are already city dwellers.
Paris, which stood out among other French cities back in the Middle Ages, was also of great importance for the development of urban planning. But the intensive development of this city began already in modern times, when it became the capital of a large centralized state. In the middle of the 17th century. near Paris, the ceremonial royal residence of Versailles was created, which became a model for similar buildings in all European countries. New planning principles were developed that take into account the effect of long-term perspectives, the combination of artificial structures with wildlife, and the alternation of open green and water spaces. At the same time, the architectural style of classicism prevailed, which was a new “revival” of antiquity. Following the model of Versailles, the ensemble of ceremonial palaces and squares was built in the 18th - early 19th centuries. and in Paris itself along the right bank of the Seine: Louvre - Tuileries - Place de la Concorde - Champs Elysees - Place des Stars with the Arc de Triomphe. In the second half of the 19th century. The city is undergoing a reconstruction of Haussmann (the former prefect of Paris), during which wide boulevards are created on the site of the former fortress walls and vast spaces along the Seine are cleared, allowing one to appreciate the architectural masterpieces of the city center: Notre Dame Cathedral, the Louvre, Les Invalides, and later the Eiffel Tower. At the same time, the city was divided along social lines: rich neighborhoods are concentrated to the northwest of the city center, poor ones to the southeast. The city center was surrounded by industrial suburbs. By the beginning of the 20th century. Paris with a population of 2.7 million people. shares 3rd-4th place among cities in the world along with Berlin, second only to London and New York.
Berlin is another remarkable European city of that time... It became the capital of a large centralized state (German Empire) relatively late - only in 1870. And initially it was a small fortress in the center of the Slavic lands, conquered by German princes in the 13th-14th centuries . Only since 1701 has Berlin been the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia - the largest, but only one of many German states of that time. But obtaining the status of the capital contributed to the rapid development of the city. Already during Prussian times, palaces and country residences were created in the city, almost inferior to those in Paris and London. A system of shipping canals is being built, railways are being laid in all directions, which dramatically improves the transport situation of the city and this contributes to the growth of industry. The new advantageous position is especially clearly manifested in times; German Empire. In the second half of the 19th century. Berlin's population grows 5 times. The city houses not only numerous administrative institutions of the new large European state, but also large industrial enterprises, the latest for that time in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and chemistry. The city becomes one of the world capitals of that time.
In general, we can say that in modern times the main stimulus for the development of European cities is initially international trade, but subsequently the leading place goes to industry. Administrative centers - the capitals of centralized states - are also developing rapidly. Industries are beginning to gain increasing importance: non-production spheres - finance, education, science, culture
This article examines issues related to the factors that influenced the formation and genesis of tourism in modern times, as well as the prerequisites that contributed to the emergence of mass tourism. In addition, the characteristics of those types of tourism that appeared during this period are given.
In modern times, the intensity of both travel in general and tourism itself has increased significantly. A number of factors contributed to this.
- Firstly, liberalization of political and social life, which was a consequence of revolutionary changes in a number of European countries and the United States. Increased safety of movement was a consequence of the end of the period of feudal fragmentation and, accordingly, the emergence of centralized states that had great opportunities to level out crime situations within their own borders.
- Secondly, the development of transport systems, both sea and land, the emergence of railways.
- Thirdly, at that time there was a further increase in the number of hotels and inns.
- fourthly, after the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, a single world economic space began to form, which not only inevitably led to an escalation in the number and volume of trade operations, but also urgently required the exploration and development of new territories.
- fifthly, the Age of Enlightenment represented the next stage of the scientific revolution after the Renaissance, which led not only to an increase in students in existing universities and the opening of new ones, but also to a significant increase in the number of “travels for knowledge” of the youth of European countries.
These processes are reflected in a number of historical sources and a representative block of scientific literature. The source base includes numerous descriptions of the campaigns of both foreign and domestic traveler-scientists: geographers, orientalists, historians, etc.; as well as diplomats, military men, and pilgrims.
Research literature should include works that analyze and describe expeditions and travels. Separately, you can cite works that discuss Russian travel. Of particular value is the material on the organization, routes and conditions of the first tourist groups, contained in special periodicals of the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. .
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. there were certain trade routes, both local and international and intercontinental, along which significant masses of people traveled. It is difficult to imagine that all of them were guided only by questions of profit and did not visit resorts or get acquainted with the memorable historical places of the countries where they traded. Some merchants were friends of the humanists, they themselves knew Latin very well and were familiar with all the somewhat famous literary works of that time. The sons of European (in particular, English) merchants, trained as merchants, often underwent training in Smyrna, where they were supervised by the English consul. From Germany they traveled to Italian cities, for example, to study double-entry bookkeeping there.
Large-scale intercontinental trade required hotels and inns where merchants could safely spend the night while traveling or stay during the fairs that were extremely popular in Europe at that time. Therefore, trade, developing the hotel industry, contributed to the development of tourism. Entire quarters that were allocated in eastern cities for foreign merchants served as the prototype of the German courts in Europe.
In modern times, medical tourism continued to develop, but an innovation appeared - seaside resorts. After the English physician Richard Russell in the mid-18th century. The health benefits of sea water were proven and advertised, the aristocracy of Europe began to explore the southern coast of England, the Côte d'Azur of France, and some resort places on the coast of the Apennine Peninsula were revived. The boom associated with seaside resorts began in Europe after crowned heads visited these places for treatment. This was the case in England, when, after the Prince of Wales stayed in Bratton, dozens of resort towns appeared nearby. After Napoleon III underwent treatment in Biarritz, this place turned into a tourist Mecca for many years. In Russia, Yalta (and eventually the whole of Crimea) began to be considered a fashionable resort also after Livadia became the summer residence of the royal family.
But treatment on waters, and not only sea waters (Baden-Baden, Vichy, Karlebad, etc.), was the lot of the aristocracy. Vacationing at recognized European resorts, a person seemed to join the elite and received a kind of “quality mark”. After all, the “society on the waters” was nothing more than high society - what is now commonly called VIP. The fashion for treatment and, in general, recreation “on the waters” appeared in the second half of the 18th century. The best theater and musical groups came to the resort areas to entertain the aristocrats.
From the second half of the 18th century. More and more young Englishmen are completing their education and “entering life” after a great trip to Europe. And since at that time the British Empire was by far the richest power in the world, this also affected tourism. Many authors already at the end of the 18th century. the British began to be called the “nation of travelers”, since traveling Englishmen could be found everywhere in Europe. But Switzerland has become increasingly popular for recreation, as well as for improving the level of education, in particular for learning French.
France, which had long been a leading country in the field of scientific tourism, was gradually losing its position in the field of tourism services in general. The reason for this was the Great French Revolution and the revolutionary wars that followed it. In Switzerland, the safety of citizens, as well as the level of service, was much higher. Those tourists who wanted to make a cultural and educational trip traditionally went to Italy.
In the 19th century scientific programs to study various regions of the planet are becoming more organized and systematic. Among the outstanding travel scientists is Alexander Humboldt (1769-1859), who devoted almost his entire life to studying various regions of the Earth: Northern and Western Europe, South America, the Urals and Siberia. The most famous travelers who explored the African continent rightly include David Livingston and Henry Morton Stanley.
It was little studied by Europeans and therefore was of undoubted interest to scientists of various specialties - from religious scholars and linguists to geographers and biologists. A number of scientific studies were subsidized by the English East India Company, which, since the end of the 18th century, essentially governed the vast territory of the Hindustan Peninsula and encouraged its diverse research. One of the earliest was the expedition in 1808 by G. Webb to the sources of the Ganges. After the goal of the expedition was achieved, the travelers visited the cities of Badrinath and Mana, as well as the sacred Barsu waterfall. In Badrinath, travelers visited an ancient Hindu temple, which was both a center of pilgrimage and medical tourism. In his report, G. Webb rather cynically touched upon the mercantile side of pilgrimage tours. “The number of hot springs is very large. Each has its own name and special property, and the Brahmins, of course, manage to extract benefit from each... The numerous taxes that are levied on this path to heaven could lead a believer to the conclusion that walking along the narrow path of virtue is also not cheap.” .
In 1808, a new English expedition was sent to explore Punjab, where the Sikh state was located. In addition to ethnographic observations of the Sikhs, the markets of the cities of this region, especially Amritsar, were also carefully studied. But much attention was also paid to problems associated with the Sikh pilgrimage. The members of this expedition visited Lahore, noticing that “on this city, like on Delhi and Agra, time has laid its heavy destructive hand”, could not help but admire the beauty of the Taj Mahal, and then returned to. It is obvious that the participants of the “voyage”, fulfilling a specific order of the company, also, to the extent possible, became acquainted with all the attractions that were located in this territory.
One of the most significant scientific enterprises of the 19th century. became a round-the-world expedition in which the great naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) participated. In his Autobiography, the scientist wrote: “The voyage on the Beagle was, of course, the most important event of my life, which determined all my subsequent activities.”.
(watercolor by Owen Stanley)
Charles Darwin's memoirs about this journey were of such high scientific and educational value that their multiple reprints helped educate more than one generation of naturalists and geographers. “In my opinion,” the scientist noted, “for a young naturalist there can be nothing better than traveling to distant countries... The excitement caused in him by unprecedented objects and the possibility of success encourage him to more energetic activity... The trip, however, brought The pleasure is too deep for me not to recommend it to every naturalist... From a moral point of view, the journey will teach him good-natured patience.”. Thus, during his journey, Charles Darwin noted not only its high educational, but also relaxation value.
Exploration of the Australian continent in the 30-40s. XIX century were engaged in the work of the English traveler Thomas Mitchell and the German traveler Ludwig Leichhardt, who made a transcontinental journey in 1844. The Arctic and Antarctic were studied by such outstanding polar explorers as James Weddell, John Biscoe, John and James Ross, Robert McClure, Niels Nordenskiöld, George De Long, Fridtjof Nansen and others. Of course, their expeditions to unexplored areas of the Earth bore features of extreme tourism.
From the point of view of the development of tourism in the 19th century. was a milestone. Even formally, the word “tourist” itself arose at the beginning of this century. It appeared on the pages of a book by the Englishman Page, who stated that “a traveler these days is called a tourist.” It is not surprising that the term was probably introduced by the British, although at the same time it began to be used by residents of mainland Europe.
Since the end of the 18th century. in Great Britain, as stated, a “fashion” arose for young people to travel around Europe after graduating from school. Over time, the scale of this phenomenon has increased. In 1888, for example, half a million Englishmen crossed the English Channel. Obviously, not everyone left the British Isles as tourists. Expanding the colonial empire and developing new markets, the British government relied mainly on entrepreneurs and traders, as well as the colonial administration, who paved the way for tourists. Thanks to these social strata, “colonial quarters” were created in eastern countries, which gradually began to meet European standards in terms of comfort. But in Europe itself, more and more hotels appeared, which, having arisen back in the 17th century, began to differ from ordinary inns in a larger range and quality of services, in particular, in that each guest had his own separate bedroom.
It was in Great Britain that the English Alpine Club was organized in 1857 - the first association of mountain travel lovers. The Alps were originally the place for high mountain ascents. Then the geography of travel of English climbers expanded to the Caucasus, the Himalayas and the mountains of New Zealand. Following their example, tourism developed on the continent: Alpine clubs were also created in Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany and France, and over time, periodicals began to be published - by the end of the 19th century. there were already about three hundred of them. The first of these was the Alpine Journal, published in 1863 in London. On the pages of these publications there was not only the popularization of mountaineering, but also advertising, and also published scientific articles containing information about the mountains.
Why has the UK become a leader in tourism? This fact is largely explained by the fact that it was in this country, the first in the world, that the industrial revolution began, which put the state at the forefront of the world in almost all areas of life. For the topic of this study, it is extremely important that it was in Great Britain that a new type of transportation arose in 1825 - the railway, which sharply intensified and reduced the cost of movement of the population.
Characterizing the development of tourism before the 19th century, we can say that it developed not thanks to, but rather in spite of the infrastructure that then existed. Thomas Cook appreciated the advantages of the railway for the development of tourism. The era of modern tourism can be traced back to a mass excursion that took place in 1841, in which 600 people took part. T. Cook owns the words: “We must have a railway for millions.” Tourism can be developed only with the development, in turn, of means of transport and world economic relations in general.
In 1844, T. Cook entered into an agreement with the Midland Railway Company for wholesale discounts on tickets for tour groups. Since 1847, his office began to distribute special tickets for both group and individual excursions to cities in Great Britain and then Europe. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 was turned into a tourist show, and T. Cook organized a tourist route - his bureau offered tourists a full range of travel services. They began to book hotels for tourists, introduce various discounts, and develop new routes, including pilgrimage routes to Palestine, as well as exotic ones, for example, to the Crimea and the Caucasus. Even the railway journey itself was soon turned into a tourist trip. In 1883, the first trip on the Orient Express took place along the route: Paris-Bucharest. Following T. Cook, the tourist office of Frames and Sir Henry Lunn was opened in Great Britain.
After Great Britain, the second country where mass tourism began to develop was Switzerland. The activities of its numerous agencies for the distribution of special posters, posters, leaflets about the offered travel services since the 80s. acquired a pan-European character. At the end of the 19th century. Numerous societies specializing in travel services and their advertising were created in all European countries. All somewhat reputable newspapers now have sections providing information about travel and their routes. By the beginning of the 20th century. tourism has become a part of the life of Europeans. The Swiss directory of national economics for 1905 noted the following: “Tourism is a phenomenon of modern times, which arose as a result of the increased need for recuperation and climate change, the awakening of aesthetic interest in works of art and natural landscapes, and the desire to communicate with nature” .
Tourism was a strictly social phenomenon. Only city dwellers, but not rural residents, took part in tourist activities. Urbanization was proceeding too rapidly, and in order to avoid unnecessary environmental and mental stress, city residents “invented” various types of tourism. This is how country tourism appeared. And the Social Democrats of Austria, initially in Vienna in 1895, and then in Germany and Switzerland, created a special organization - “Friends of Nature”. She organized collective “weekend trips” for factory workers. This trip out of town with family members, accompanied by an excursion to memorable places, was a vibrant tourist event.
Youth of Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century. created the Migratory Birds Union. Members of this union traveled not only throughout Germany, but their hiking routes, as a rule, were laid out in rural areas, since the “Wandervogel,” as they called themselves, wanted to be as close to nature as possible. During their campaigns, they often conducted local history research. With the growing popularity of sports from the middle of the 19th century. in England, and from the end of the century in other European countries, various sports associations began to appear - societies of cyclists (cyclists), mountain (climbing) clubs, etc.
In European countries, in particular in Germany, educational and pedestrian tourism began to develop. During the weekend, residents of the Rhine cities not only strove to go into nature, but tried, whenever possible, to visit ancient castles, learn historical details related to their past, and perhaps revive some traditions.
Due to the increase in the scale of travel, the hotel industry has received further impetus for development. In 1829, a hotel was opened in Boston that had a bellhop, guest rooms were locked with a key, and each room had a bath and toilet. This became something of a standard for American hotels for many years. Most often, hotels arose near railway stations, since the railways were part of the resort business and resort property. Since the end of the 19th century. Hotel chains are beginning to emerge. In Europe, for example, Caesar Ritz formed a chain of Ritz hotels between 1870 and 1907, most of which were licensed to operate under the Ritz name.
Summarizing the development of travel and tourism in modern times, it can be noted that in the XVII-XVIII centuries. The scale of travel increased: trips around the world became “ordinary”, hundreds of ships annually crossed the waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. International trade improved, and the activities of trading companies covered ever larger territories and involved an ever-increasing number of people. In the Age of Enlightenment, expeditions with purely scientific purposes were increasingly carried out, and systematic exploration of the continents began. The intensification of interstate contacts began to have a planetary character. At the same time, pilgrimage and medical tourism continued to develop, in the latter a new direction emerged - seaside resorts.
In the XIX - early XX centuries. All those types of tourism that existed earlier have been preserved and further developed. What is revolutionary is the emergence of prerequisites for mass tourism. This was made possible by a fundamental change in means of transport and due to the emergence of a “middle class”, as well as an increase in the general level and quality of life in the leading industrial countries of the world. In addition, companies began to appear that specialized specifically in selling tourism services to the market. Travel also led to the fact that Europeans created “enclaves” of Western civilization in the countries of the East, setting up comfortable hotels there. While developing the colonies, Europeans also determined areas and medical indicators for local resorts.
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The article goes into the issues relating to the factors which influenced the formation and genesis of tourism in the New Times, and the factors that led to mass tourism evolution. In addition, the author characterizes the types of tourism which emerged in the period hereinbefore.
